Midterm Questions Flashcards
What does Personality theory address?
Addreses the person as a Whole
What is Aggregation?
How all of us function, rules that apply to all of us
What are nomothetic Theories?
Looks for Universal laws of behaviour is a major aim and outcome of this idea. (traits are source of human personality)
What are Idiographic Theories?
Suggests that we each possess a unique psychological structure. Certain traits, or combos of traits, might be held by just one person, and therefore it is impossible to compare people
3 key factors to defining personality
Human Universals
Individual Differences
Individual Uniqueness
To answer WHAT HOW and WHY questions they address what 4 Distinct topics?
Personality Structure
Personality Process
Growth and Development
Psychopathology and Behavior change
What are the 5 building blocks of Personality?
Trait: A quality of a person (honest or dependable)
Type: Refers to the clustering of many different traits (distinct groups/type/categories in people/biological sex)
System: Collection of highly integrated parts (e.g “Friend” as a collection of traits
Hierarchy: Units of analysis may regulate or be higher in functioning than others
Fluid: Personality is a fluid flexible system in which different parts influence one another, with little rigid, fixed hierarchal structure
Personality Process Examples
Biological drives, Anticipation of future events, Level of consciousness/attention/awareness, to enhance oneself, survival?
Biological Determinants
Temperament and evolutionary psychologists
Dan Ariely Believed
Must have practical benefit, Must have some congruence with what we see in the real world
Do personality theorists focus on basic nature or narrow questions about human behavior?
they provide philosophical views about the basic nature of human beings, rather than narrow questions about human behavior
Freud
We are controlled by internal forces: unconscious impulses and emotions that are buried deep in our unconscious minds
(INTERNAL)
Skinner
We are controlled by external forces: environmental rewards and punishment that govern our actions
Psychoanalytic theory
Suggests that people you encounter in your adult life may symbolically represent parental figures and a basic personality dynamic involves “odeipus complex) From this view you may be acting in a consistent manner
The Pleasure Principle
Not following instincts will produce friction
Not following the reality principle can produce a Friction “psychological”. In many cases we are modifying our instincts by our reality principle
Freud The reality Principle
We are never truly free beings or authentic human beings; hence we are constantly suffering
Freud and Psychodynamic Structure
1) Conscious Level (flow of thoughts that we are aware of)
2)Preconscious Level (Mental contents we could easily become aware of)
3) Unconscious Level (mental contents that we are unaware of (Thoughts, desires)
Psychodynamic structure/Dreams
Dreams can expose the contents of the unconscious
Manifest Content
Storyline of the dream
Latent Content
The unconscious ideas, emotions and drives (meaning)
Psychodynamic Structure
The Motivated unconscious (highly motivated)
Psychoanalytic unconscious (freudian theory)
Contents focus on wants, desires and motiovations
Deep and dark
Illogical, Irrational
Cognitive unconscious (Modern Theory)
Conscious and unconscious cognitions are no different in quality/ content
Relevant psychoanalytic research (Evidence)
Tachistocope (Subliminal Perception)
Perceptual Evidence (Emotional toned words vs Neutral ones
Subliminal psychodynamic activation
Psychodynamic Id (unconscious process)
The original source of all drive energy
seeks only to release excitation or tension
Non-moral not aware of reality
“I wish I could go out tonight but this essay….”
Psychodynamic Superego (unconscious and conscious processes)
The Internal representation of moral rules of the external social world
Controls behavior and the id by rewarding good behavior and pushing bad behavior
Super ego seeks perfection (all or none)
“No, you have to work on it tonight or you’ll do really bad on it (Guilt) “
Psychodynamic Ego (Unconscious and conscious processes)
Seeks to express and satisfy the id in accordance with a) opportunity and constraints (eg reality)
b) The superego
“ok, ill work on it first, then go out with friends on the weekend”
Psychodynamic Process
Freuds Theory; Motivation is biological and in the form of drives
A drive is a source of energy that can motivate any of a variety of specific actions
2 Specifics: Life and death Instinct
Psychodynamic Life instinct (motivational Drives)
“Eros” – sexual and ego drives; higher unity with oneself)
Called the ‘sexual-ego’ drive Libido
Libido motivates us to preservation and reproduction – as a motivator for higher unity
Psychodynamic Death instinct (motivational Drives)
(“Thanatos” – death drive; opposite of higher unity – decomposition)
More of a drive for calmness/homeostasis – the ultimate calm being death
Dynamics of functioning
The anxiety is thought to be so distressing that we mentally defend against it entering consciousness
We develop ways to distort reality and exclude feelings from awareness that we reduce anxiety
These are called defence mechanisms
Psychodynamic Defence
DENIAL
Refusing to admit something unpleasant happened
Most can agree that denial isn’t helpful
Psychodynamic Defence
PROJECTION
Unacceptable, internal negative qualities about ourselves that we project onto other people
Psychodynamic Defence
REPRESSION
The major psychoanalytic defence
Force thoughts memories and cognitions deep into the unconsciousness
Freud and Psycho-sexual Stages
These events at certain stages shape our future personalities
Freuds Oral Passive (receptive) Stage
Early Oral stage development, Sucking, feeding, putting things in mouth (internalizing)
Freuds Oral Aggressive (external)
Late oral stage development, teeth, biting
Externalizing-aggression hostility (yelling, biting)
Freud Identification (Complex)
The resolution of the oedipal and electra complexes occur through the child identifying with the parent of the same sex
The development of Thinking Processes (two different Modes) Freud
1) Primary process; Thinking is unconscious, illogical, irrational, parallels the id
2) Secondary Process; Thinking is conscious, Develops after the primary process, it parallels the development of the Ego (the self)
The Development of thinking process Contemporary theorists
Experiential thinking (similar to Primary)
Emotional (Limbic system; deep: empathetic, intuitive, holistic, parasympathetic, Similar to id
Rational Thinking: Similar to Secondary
Abstract, analytic and logical, similar to ego and super ego
Pro and cons or Psychoanalysis
Pros
Gathered tremendous wealth of information
Prolifically wrote on the evidence collected
Really ‘thought’ about the subject
Self Analysis
Introspection
Tried to limit his own biases and preconceptions
Deep analytical thinker = philosophy + psychology + biology
Cons
Freud did no experiments in the lab (e.g. Experimental research)
Used no standard psychological tests (e.g. Correlational research)
Only used the Case Study method of evidence
However, very little psychological testing at that time – psych. not a ‘natural science’
Empirical evidence, woefully incomplete
How does Freud Suggest we investigate people’s personality?
Through Free Association
Atmosphere of Non-Judgemental curiosity and acceptance
Projective Tests
The two Most common: The Rorschach Inkblot Test
Thematic Apperception Test TAT
Inkblot test
Inkblots on folded paper to make symmetrical patterns of ambiguous shapes
Used to determine which ones discriminated between psychiatric patients the best
What is a Projective Test?
client is asked to respond in some way to an ambiguous object (interpretation)
Inkblot test Analysis
1 Structure: Interpretation that matches the structure
2 Content: The nature of the interpretation
(animate object vs inanimate
Symbolisms
3 Process: How the patient client performs the task
(Demeanour/attitude)
Avoidance of task
Over-dependence on therapist/instructions
How do Projective tests relate to psychodynamic theory?
- The complex organization of personality function: Assessors can observe complex patterns of thinking
- Our unconscious and defence mechanisms (The tests are thought to evade our defense mechanisms. The clinically interpreted meaning of their responses are hidden from the subject (Don’t know right or wrong)
- A holistic understanding of personality: Overall style of responding is indicative of a person’s personality
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
The assumption is that people will project their own personalities into the scene
(How the person responds generally is important)
The common THEME of responding across stimuli indicates unconscious thoughts
TAT Valid?
Research has shown TATs can reveal implicit motives when related to achievement motivation
However, Most subject “themes” were not related to outcomes of interest
TAT Reliable?
Inter-rater reliability originally very poor better with RPAS
BIAS- Clinician Interpretation may reflect their own thoughts and feelings
RPAs
Rorschach Performance Assessment System
What do Projective tests say about classic Freudian Psychodynamic Theory?
Very little. Freud did not use Projective tests
How does Psychoanalytic Theory account for psychopathologies
Fixations: if Child receives little gratification in stage can’t move on
Under Stress/Anxiety these people may regress to an early stage of fixation
Fixations and Stages
Oral 0-1 Years: taking things in to oneself, Seeking gratification from eating, smoking, drinking
Anal 1-3 Years: Withholding or excreting (develop power, Toilet training
Anal retentive: Neat, orderly, retaining/hoarding
Anal Expulsive : Exhibiting cruelty, poor emotional regulation, disorganization, rebelliousness and general carelessness
Phallic (3-6 years):
Males over-identification with father (toxic Masculinity, sexist
Females: Over identification with Mother (Hysterical personality -Seductive, Naive, manipulative
How does Psychological Change occur in psychoanalytic theory?
We need insight into the unconscious so we can address it
Free Association and Dream analysis and transference: (patient develops attitudes towards the analyst which reveal their actual attitudes towards their significant others
Transference Neurosis
Through transference patient can play out full blown situations of conflict (In safe environment)
However, not uncommon for a patient to then “transfer’ Feelings to their therapist
When does Change occur? (psychoanalytic theory)
When the patient realizes on an emotional and intellectual level the nature of their conflicts, but how?
-Safe environment
Context
Functioning
Alderian Theory (compensatory Theory)
People who feel inferior, inadequate, insecure will compensate for this
Alderian Theory
Puts more importance on early childhood than other stages in life “we strive to develop” as a compensatory mechanism
Also interested in Birth order as indicator of psychological development
What did Jung believe?
Viewed the WHOLE psyche (individuation) as the cohesion of unconscious and conscious
Also believed that peoples behavior could be FUTURE FACING; the past is not everything
The unconscious is a storehouse of experiences and thoughts (Personal unconscious) but also a collective unconscious - Consisting of ARCHETYPES, developed over human history
Jung believed Human psyche comprised of 3 parts;
1) The EGO or The SELF, the conscious mind.
2) The Personal Unconscious; contains our memories including those that have been suppressed
3) The Collective unconscious; Universal, not personal. Result of our common ancestry. Contains Universal images or symbols called archetypes (we know these intuitively)
Jungian Archetypes
Archetypes symbolize basic Human motivations, Values and Personalities
(Archetypes cannot be observed directly but can be inferred by looking at religion, dreams, art, and literature)
The major Archetypes
PERSONA
SHADOW
ANIMA AND ANIMUS
SELF
Jungian Theory; PERSONA
Jung believed we struggled with many opposing forces within us, most notably:
Persona vs. Self (or personal/private self)
The persona (an archetype) is how we present ourselves to the world
Like a “mask” that we present to others while the “Self” is our “true Self”
We need them both, but if the persona takes over, we may lose ourselves and be filled with a loss of identity and self-doubt
authenticity
Jungian Theory; SHADOW
The Shadow exists as part of the unconscious mind and is composed of suppressed ideas, weaknesses, desires, instincts, and shortcomings
The shadow forms out of our attempts to adapt to cultural norms and expectations
e.g., failures & antithetical super-ego?
It contains all the things that are unacceptable not only to society, but more importantly to one’s own personal morals and values
e.g., envy, greed, jealousy, shame, prejudice, hate, aggression, etc.
people tend to deny this element of their own psyche and (instead) project it on to others
Jungian Theory; THE ANIMA OR ANIMUS
The anima is a feminine image in the male psyche
The animus is a male image in the female psyche
These archetypal images are found in the collective and personal unconscious
The collective unconscious may contain notions about how women should behave while personal experience with wives, girlfriends, sisters, and mothers contribute to more personal images of women, and vice versa for males
However, in many cultures, men and women are encouraged to adopt traditional and often rigid gender roles
Jung suggested that this discouragement of men exploring their feminine aspects and women exploring their masculine aspects serves to undermine psychological development
Jung believed these were opposing forces and a synergy of acceptance of both our masculine and feminine sides, which he called Syzygy, is vital for well-being
The syzygy represents completion, unification, and wholeness
JUNG WHAT IS SYZYGY?
Jung believed these were opposing forces and a synergy of acceptance of both our masculine and feminine sides, which he called Syzygy, is vital for well-being
The syzygy represents completion, unification, and wholeness
Jungian Theory; THE SELF
The Self is an archetype that represents the unified
unconsciousness and consciousness of an individual
The Self is center of all our psychological systems
Creating the Self occurs through a process known as individuation, in which the opposing forces of the psyche are integrated to achieve a sense of a cohesive Self
This is similar in many ways to Maslow’s concept of self-actualization
Jung believed that disharmony between the unconscious and the conscious mind could lead to psychological problems
Bringing these conflicts into awareness and accommodating them in conscious awareness was an important part of the individuation process
What is Object Relations Theory
Based on interpersonal experiences of the past, present and future
Early experiences create various mental images/ideas of relationships with others
Especially prominent is the persons relationship with their mother
These are like a residue that will shape future perceptions of an individual’s relationships
What is Self-Psychology?
The impact from early experiences Shapes one’s self, not specifically relationships
Poor relationships with others is thought to be a failure to develop ones true self (Lack of Identity)
(You have adopted others beliefs, values, attitudes)
Self has become “seeking external validation” can lead to jealousy or envy of others living your true ideals
Clinical focus is on current poor self-Identity
Attachment Theory John Bowlby
John Bowlby – Attachment Theory
Attachment Behavioural System (ABS)
Innate system that we all have
Motivates infant to be close to parents / caregiver (i.e., in proximity)
Infant, as it develops, begins to explore its surroundings on short excursions (a metre or two) using the parent as a “secure base” and “if…then…” control-theory evaluations
Attachment Styles in Infants Mary Ainsworth
“Strange situation” was an objective measure of attachment in children
Featured SEPERATION and the REUNION
3 Attachment Styles
Secure (Distressed when separated) (Happy reunited)
Insecure Avoidant (Little protest when separated) (avoidant reunited)
Insecure Anxious Resistant (Some protest separated) (Ambivalent mixed emotions on reunion) (Can’t regulate)
Attachment style in Adulthood?
Contemporary Attachment Theory Bartholomew
Suggests attachment style is dimensional not typological
Two Dimensions in contemporary attachment theory
Internal model of SELF
Internal model of OTHERS
Psychodynamic Therapy Still Includes
Dream Analysis, Free Association, defence Mechanisms, Entropy, early childhood explanation’s of Adult Psychopathology and Transference/projection
Is psychoanalytic Theory Testable?
Absolutely not
Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory?
There is LIMITED EVIDENCE
Current research indicates
The Therapeutic Alliance is the major indicator of therapeutic Success
Psychoanalytic Theory Strengths
Emotional and motivational unconscious processes
Defence Mechanisms
Stages of Childhood dev
Transference (in Therapy)
Complexity of Human behaviour incorporated into Theory
Psychoanalytic LIMITATIONS
Substantial parts of the theory generally lack empirical support , However empirical testing is difficult
Person as an energy system, controlled by instinct (Fatalist)
EVen devote followers could not agree on most aspects
NEO-Freudian VS Freud
Neo-Freudians: Jung, Adler, Bowlby, Ainsworth and others
Psychological development is through social learning and the integration of various aspects of the psyche – not a wrestling match between them
We learn principles of behaviour, socialization through parents, caregivers, etc.
We strive to develop (compensate for our shortcomings)
To live our lives as our True Self
Freud VS Neo Freudian
Freud: biologist of the mind
Excessive development of the superego is at the expense of the ‘authentic life’
Socialization: through compromise and concession
We end up with not the real entity, not the authentic self
Freud Believed in Humanistic Approach
Freud:
Controlled by unconscious forces – primarily sexual/aggressive
Personality is determined, and fixed, by experiences in early life (Deterministic)
Our adult experiences are repetitions of unresolved early (childhood) conflicts
Humanistic Approach Rogers
Emphasises conscious perceptions of the present – e.g., Heidegger’s “being”
Subjectivity of experience - phenomenology
Humanistic – free will/choice, emphasizes:
Personal worth of the individual (self-worth)
Centrality of human values, and the creative, active nature of human beings
Optimistic view focusing on the noble human capacity to overcome hardship, pain and despair – e.g., strident and resilient in the face of “suffering” (existential)
“conscience” as the Self (similar to Freud’s Ego bartering between superego and id)
Conscience: an inner feeling or voice viewed as acting as a guide to the rightness or wrongness of one’s behavior.
Empathy is a process
Entering the Private Perceptual World of another and Becoming thoroughly at home in it
Not making judgements
Being Sensitive
Communicating
Being confident in helping them experience fully their own sensing
Rogers on The view of the Person
The core of our nature and motivation is essentially positive and towards growth
-When people are moving freely they are able to move towards being positive beings
Rogers subjectivity of experience
The reality we each observe is unique
Phenomenological- how the conscious person experiences the world
Our perceptions of the world are subjective and individualistic
Real outer world of Objects (matter)
Subjective inner world of Narrative/Meaning
What is Incongruence?
Not feeling AUTHENTIC
What is congruence?
Authenticity: The ideal self and the actual self are Aligned
what is the Key structure to Rogerian Theory?
The SELF
It is what attaches meaning to the phenomenological field
Rogerian Theory; What is the SELF
An Organized and consistent pattern of perception
It remains relatively Stable across time and situations
Its primary Conscious
Our understanding of our actual and Ideal Self
What are the 7 Life changing Stoic Ideas
Sommum Bonnum - Live your Virtue (excellence)
Amor Fati (Love Fate) -impermanence of consciousness
Premeditatio Malorum- Reduce Expectations
Obstacle is the way- Show you the path to excellence
Ego is the Enemy
Interconnectedness - “the common good”
Momento Mori- Live Everyday to its fullest
Self-Concept
A person’s Self Concept can be Genuine (truthful/authentic) and/or Distorted (e.g A persona)
Distorted Self concept can lead to Psychopathology (break from reality) delusional
How can we measure Self-Concept?
Q-sort (Trait word cards) sorted most to least like me, used as a flexible measure to investigate the difference between the actual and ideal self
Semantic Differential: Rate concepts on polar adjective (yes/no) scales and traits
Single Overarching motivational Principle
Self Actualization; A forward tendency towards personal growth
Process of Self-Actualization
Open to Experience
Existential Living
Trust your decisions
Creativity
Fulfilled Life
Personal Growth Scale (Akin to self Actualization)
Feeling of continued development
Sense of realizing your potential
Open to New experiences
Greater self Knowledge, reflectiveness and effectiveness
Rogers and self consistency
We seek to maintain consistency and congruence between our individual perceptions of the self and experiences
Rogerian Defences
Subception: Removal of incongruent experiences from consciousness before we are “aware” of them
We either DENY or DISTORT
Distortion
Denial
Change meaning of experience
Remove From consciousness (I didn’t do it”
Research on Self-consistency and Congruence
Subjects slower to perceive words that were personally threatening to them
Better recall for stimuli that matched a person’s self-image “like me”
People with low self-esteem more likely to cheat
People with low self esteem will maintain low self concept and negative mood
Rogers believes that what is a lifelong Process?
Self-actualization
Development occurs at 2 Levels
Parent-child Interactions
Internal Psychological structures; Assimilate incongruences into self-concept
or
Distort incongruences to retain consistent self-concept but no personal growth
Resentment of OTHERS
Will only Lead to More Suffering
