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midterm Prep Flashcards

1
Q

Characteristics of living organisms (3)

A
  1. Grow/survive
  2. Reproduce
  3. Heredity
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2
Q

How do organisms achieve processes (4)

A
  1. Organization of cells
  2. ATP
  3. Synthesis/degredation of molecules
  4. Common nucleic code
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3
Q

Protocells

A

Lipids/amino acids
Could form membrane-bound vesicles

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4
Q

What did Millar’s experiment show

A

Amino acids, sugar, and nucleic acids generated spontaneously from earth’s early atmosphere- disfavoured

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5
Q

Most favoured current theory of beginning of life

A

Alkaline deep sea vents

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6
Q

Order of evolution from early earth rough

A
  • prokaryotes
  • photosynthetic
  • oxygen
  • eukaryotes
  • multicellular cells
  • colonization of land by plants
  • flowers
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7
Q

How do you define a species

A

Biologicallu
Morphological
Ecologically
Phylogenetically
Prokaryotes

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8
Q

Biological species

A

Members can interbreed and produce viable fertile offspring

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9
Q

Morphological species

A

Members have common structures

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10
Q

Ecological species

A

Same niche similarities

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11
Q

Phylogenetic species

A

Nucleic acid similarities

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12
Q

Prokaryotic species

A

Strains with common biochemical properties

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13
Q

Why are viruses not organisms (4)

A
  1. Lack cellular structures
  2. Do not grow
  3. Do not respond to external stimuli
  4. No independent metabolism
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14
Q

Viral replication cycle

A
  1. Release capsid into host cell
  2. Host enzymes replicate viral proteins and mRNA
  3. Host makes more capsids
  4. Self assemble into new viral particles
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15
Q

Biological characteristics of prokaryotes

A
  • 1 DNA circular chromosome
  • no nucleus
  • no membrane bound organelles (except photosynthesizers)
  • no cytoskeleton
  • small ribosomes
  • asexual reproduction
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16
Q

Traits of being microscopically small

A
  • fast reproduction
  • easy dispersal
  • high sensitivity to environment (low SA to V ratio)
  • high rate of living
  • affects water
  • water is viscous
  • restricted mobility
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17
Q

High rate of living

A
  • SA determines absorbtion and excretion ability
  • Low ratio = more nutrients per cell
  • High ratio = less nutrients per cell

More nutrients=faster metabolism = shorter life span

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18
Q

Why is water viscous for microorganisms

A

Energy expenditure per unit of mass moved

Low ratio of SA to V = more friction per unit mass
High ratio = less friction per unit mass

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19
Q

Implications of restricted mobility in microorganisms

A

“Spacial and temporal heterogeneity in nutrients and environment is critical to prokaryotic activity”

  • limited movement = dependent on changing environments to deliver nutrients
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20
Q

Uptake of nutrients for prokaryotes

A

Via Cell wall: small molecules only = extracellular hydrolysis to break down larger

Diffusion through extracellular matrix

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21
Q

Photoautotrophs

A

Light
Inorganic Carbon

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22
Q

Photoheterotroph

A

Light
Organic C source

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23
Q

Chemoautotroph

A

Chemical
Inorganic C

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24
Q

Chemoheterotroph

A

Chemical
Organic C

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25
Q

Prokaryotic Reproduction (fission)

A
  1. Duplication of chromosome
  2. Cell elongation
  3. Septum forms
  4. Cell divides
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26
Q

Phases of prokaryotic growth

A
  1. Lag
  2. Log
  3. Stationary
  4. Death
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27
Q

Genetic variation prokaryotes causes

A
  • Mutation
  • Rapid generation time
  • Gene flow
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28
Q

ARCHEA vs bacteria

A
  • rRNA different
  • Cell wall composition different

Bacteria…
- endospores
- disease
- diverse in energy acquisition
- Phospholipid bilayer
- peptidoglycan

Archea…
- branched lipid tails
- some tails link = monolayer, not bilayer
- pseudomurein not peptidoglycan

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29
Q

Chemoheterotrophs - saprobes

A

“Recyclers/decomposers’
- waste is used by another organism
- food production
- lead to antibiotics

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30
Q

Chemoheterotrophs - symbionts

A

Rumen - 4 chambered stomach of cows
- break down cellulose
- cow regurgitates and enters new chamber
- regular digestion

Soil - Fabaceae and achtinorhizal
- nodes on plant roots
- assists in nitrogen fixing

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31
Q

Chemoheterotrophs - parasitic / pathogenic

A

Cause illness

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32
Q

Cyanobacteria

A

Chlorophyll A
- can fix nitrogen
- symbiotes (many)
- store C,P,N

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33
Q

Chemoautotrophs types

A
  1. Nitrifiers
  2. Iron oxidizers
  3. Sulfur oxidizers
  4. Methanotrophs
  5. Methanogens
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34
Q

Nitrifiers

A

NH4 —> NO3

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35
Q

Iron Oxidizers

A

Fe2+ —> Fe3+

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36
Q

Sulfur oxidizers

A

S —> SO2-

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37
Q

Methanotrophs

A

CH4 —> CO2

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38
Q

Methanogens

A

H2 + CO2 —> CH4 + H2O (chemoautotrophs)

H2 + acetate (C2H3O2-) —> CH4 + H2O (Chemoheterotrophs)

ONLY anaerobic respiration
Natural gas (CH4) methane
Greenhouse gas

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39
Q

What kingdoms make up Eukarya

A
  • Plants
  • Animals
  • Fungi
  • Protists
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40
Q

Structure differences - Prokaryotes vs eukaryotes

A

Prokaryotes
- smaller
- no nucleus
- no membrane bound organelles

Eukaryotes
- larger
- nucleus
- Membrane bound organelles = compartimentalized functions

Similarities
- plasma membrane
- Cytoplasm
- Ribosomes
- cytoskeleton

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41
Q

What part do all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have?

A

Plasma membrane

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42
Q

How does a typical prokaryotic cell compare in size to a eukaryotic cell?

A

Smaller by 100x

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43
Q

Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a ________ membrane and have _______, ________, and ________, like eukaryotic cells. They also have ________ walls and may have a cell __________ . Prokaryotes have a _________ large chromosome that is not surrounded by a _________ membrane. Prokaryotes may have _________ for motility, __________ for conjugation, and __________ for adhesion to surfaces.

A
  • plasma
  • DNA
  • cytoplasm
  • Ribosomes
  • cell
  • capsule
  • single
  • nuclear
  • flagella
  • pilli
  • fimbriae
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44
Q

What are fimbriae

A

Finger like projections
Allow for adhesion
“Short pilli”

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45
Q

Function of internal membranes in eukaryotes

A
  • organization
  • discrete processes
  • increased SA for respiration
  • nuclear membrane = transcription separate from translation
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46
Q

Benefit of having a nucleus

A

Transcription and translations peerage = post transcriptional modification of mRNA

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47
Q

Function of having paired chromosomes

A

Mitosis and meiosis = sexual reproduction

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48
Q

Why have no rigid cell wall

A

Phagocytosis

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49
Q

Benefit for of cytoskeleton

A

Organization and transport

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50
Q

Function of larger ribosomes eukaryotes

A

Eukaryotes = larger = more complex requirements

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51
Q

Function of complex flagella

A

Better cell motility

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52
Q

What makes eukaryotes gene structure more complex

A

introns and mobile genetic elements

53
Q

Benefits of having introns

A
  • post transcriptional modification of mRNA
  • alternative splicing = different proteins via exon combos
54
Q

Benefits of mobile genetic elements

A
  • transposons (copy and paste)
  • plasmids (cut and paste, prokaryotes)
55
Q

What was the major development towards evolution of eukaryotes

A
  • Anaerobic respiration
  • photosynthesizers
  • aerobic respiration
  • oxygen 100%
56
Q

Why did membrane bound organelles originate

A

Aerobic respiration / photosynthesis

57
Q

Why did nucleus originate

A

Compartmentalize and protect dna

58
Q

Serial endosymbiosis theory

A
  1. Prokaryote + Aerobic bacteria = amoeboid with mitochondria
  2. Develop flagella = animals
  3. flagella + cyanobacteria = plants
59
Q

What does serial endosymbiosis theory provide

A

Theory explaining presence of membrane bound organelles

60
Q

Theories of origin of nucleus

A
  1. Autogenous
  2. Endosymbiosis
61
Q

Autogenous hypothesis of nucleus

A

Infolding of plasma membrane (bacterial) -> nucleus and endo reticulum

  1. Loss of cell wall
  2. Inward folding
  3. DNA surrounded by internal membranes
62
Q

Endosymbiosis theory of nucleus

A

Archeal host cell endocytosed Gram negative bacterium

63
Q

Origin of photosynthetic eukaryotic cell by Autogenous and ER membrane evolution (continuation from non photosynthetic)

A
  1. Phagocytosis of precursor to mitochondria
  2. Phagocytosis of precursor to chloroplast
64
Q

Current theory of evolution of nucleus and mitochondria

A

Autogenous followed by serial endosymbiosis

65
Q

Evidence of serial endosymbiosis

A
  • mitochondria resemble bacteria
  • chloroplasts and Cyanobacteria have chlorophyll a and produce oxygen
66
Q

Darwinian perspective of evolution was developed using what type of observations

A

Morphological of eukaryotic macro organisms

67
Q

Morphological observations of macro organisms included

A
  • heritable variation
  • phenotypic variation

** mutation and sexual recombination

68
Q

Example of how horizontal gene transfer enhanced diversity among tree of life

A

Serial endosymbiosis

69
Q

How did Heritable genetic variation occur

A
  • switch from endocytosis to exocytosis
  • fitness
  • retention of cell, not digestion (mitochondria)
  • efficient ATP genes favoured
  1. Allelic variation
  2. Election pressures
  3. Favoured allele more common
70
Q

Benefits of asexual reproduction

A
  • no mates
  • limited resources
  • faster replication
  • no genetic variation
  • nursing effect
71
Q

Benefits of sexual reproduction

A
  • genetic diversity
  • dominant and recessive traits
  • alternation of generations
  • polyploidy (potential)
72
Q

Speciation mechanisms in eukaryotes arising from initial diploidy

A
  1. Hybridization
  2. Autopolyploidy
  3. Allopolyploidy
73
Q

Hybridization

A

N+N
New species after 1 generation
Humans=selection force

74
Q

Autoployploidy

A

2N x 2

Double chromosomes

75
Q

Alloploidy

A

(N+N) x 2

2+ sets of chromosomes from more than 1 species

Hybrid + Autoploid

76
Q

Zygotes meiosis most fungi

A
  1. Gametes = haploid
  2. Fertilization —> Zygote = diploid
  3. Mitosis

Zygote undergoes meisosis

77
Q

Plants meiosis (alteration of generations)

A
  1. Gametes = haploid (gametophyte)
  2. Fertilization = diploid
  3. Mitosis = diploid (sporophyte)
  4. Mitosis (spores)

Multicellular and diploid phases

78
Q

Animal gemetic meiosis

A
  1. Haploid
  2. Diploid

Gamete produced from meiosis

79
Q

Benefits of diploidy

A
  • sexual reproduction
  • subtle variation
80
Q

benefits of expanded diploid phase

A
  • more time for selection
  • germ line separation
81
Q

Germ Line

82
Q

Germ line separation

A

Separation of germ line cells from somatic cells

(A mutation that happens in a somatic cell after zygote created can not be passed to the zygote)

83
Q

Reduced haploid phase

A

Decreases time for fatal mutations to single allele

84
Q

protists lack what

A

Key characteristics of plants animal or fungi
Ex. Algae

85
Q

Algae lack what

A

Roots, stems, leaves, vascular tissues, cuticle

86
Q

How is chlorophyll an example of exaltation?

A

Only difference from hemoglobin is it has Mg not Fe

87
Q

How do aquatic algae parallel land plants

A
  • primary producers
  • competition
  • complex food webs
  • structural support
  • decomposition
  • diversity
88
Q

How did algal diversity occur from heteotrophic protist groups

A

Multiple SEQUENTIAL endosymbiosis events

  1. Primary endosymbiosis (cyano A) —> 2 membranes
  2. Secondary (early heterotrophic [nucleus and mito]) —> 3 membranes
89
Q

Ecology of red algae

A
  • warm and cool marine waters
  • red dominate marine
  • on rock / other algae
  • antiherbivore terpenoids
90
Q

Structure red algae

A
  • no flagella
  • mostly multicellular
  • branched fillaments
  • mucilage secretion
  • cell walls w cellulose and calcium carbonate
91
Q

How does reg algae contribute to coral reefs

A

Red algae = calcification of cell walls
Calcium carbonate
Crucial for coral

92
Q

Chloroplasts in red algae contain what pigment

A

Chlorophyll a and c
phycobilins
Carotenoids

93
Q

Asexual reproduction of red algae

A

Monospores diploid

94
Q

Sexual reproduction of red algae

A

Alternation of generations
3 multicellular stages
- 1 haploid
- 2 diploid

95
Q

Why did red algae evolve 2 diploid phases

A

Produce self replicating spores = more

96
Q

How was alternation of generations evolved (general order across tree of life)

A

With complexity of organisms

Asexual —> sexual —> zygotes meiosis —> alternation of gens

97
Q

Theory of how alternation of generations evolved

A
  • mutant cell in diploid phase of mitosis (haploid cell) doesn’t fission
  • undergoes mitosis becomes gametes
  • fertilization = gametes
  • mutant —> mitosis = diploid reproduction
  • meiosis
  • self replication
  • gametes
    Fertilization
    Self replication
    Repeat
98
Q

Why evolve to be mostly in diploid phase

A
  • more genetic information
  • more genetic diversity
  • preserve mutations
  • polyploidy potential
  • more meiosis = more cells produced = more chance to meet mate
99
Q

Selection pressure for diploid of red algae

A

Adaptation to turbulent water or dryish places
- flagella useless
- increased gamete production favoured

100
Q

Green algae

A
  • mostly freshwater
  • ## soil snow trees
101
Q

Green algae structure

A
  • chlorophyll a and b
  • 2 flagella
102
Q

Fungi major features

A
  • mainly terrestrial
  • cell wall
    Unicellular or hyphal
  • spores
  • chemoheterotrophs
  • catabolic enzymes
  • NO FLAGELLA GAMETES
103
Q

Red queen hypotheis

A

Plant evolves to defend fungi
Fungi evolves new compound to counteract defense

Can lead to speciation

104
Q

Yeast reproduction

A

Asexual; budding
Sexual: fertilization (during substrate depletion)

105
Q

Where does yeast spend most its life cycle

A

Haploid phase

106
Q

What does it mean that some fungi are facultative anaerobes

A

Can switch between aerobic respiration and fermentation

107
Q

Fertile Crescent

A

Grapes places with wheat by accident’
Spores went on to grapes (yeast0
Spores fermented grape sugar
Made wine

108
Q

Hey Hal web is called

109
Q

Implications of being small and filamentous (hyphae)

A
  • rapid growth
  • large SA:V ratio
  • interconnects the hotspots
110
Q

Fungi acquire nutrients how

A
  • uptakes small molecules
  • larger ones broken down in extracellular matrix via enzymes
  • transport needed nutrients via hyphae where needed
111
Q

Fungi reproduction

A

Asexual; spores
Sexual; fusion of cells from hyphae

112
Q

Fungi life cycle

A
  • diploid —> gamete
  • assexual reproduction
  • new mycelia
  • attach
  • form new diploid where attached
113
Q

Dominant stage fungi life cycle

A

Dikaryotic

(Cytoplasmic fusion)

114
Q

Rapid evolution of viruses is do to

A
  • rapid reproduction in host cells
  • large progeny
  • antigenic shift
115
Q

Why are viruses bad to humans

A
  • disease
  • population decline via colonization to areas without immunity
  • bioterrorism weapon
  • human food supply
116
Q

In zygotic meiosis of fungi, when does cytoplasmic fusion and nuclear fission occur

A

Mating —> cytoplasmic fusion —> nuclear fission —> zygospore

117
Q

What promotes sexual reproduction fungi

A
  • resource depletion
  • harsh environmental conditions
  • mate detected
118
Q

Why is sexual reproduction more stable for fungi but less common

A

Diploid is most stable form, can’t reproduce as rapidly

119
Q

Why are fungi more important than others in decomposition in ecosystems

A
  • hyphae transport nutrients from far away
  • do not need water source near by = dry rot
  • can make specific enzymes to decay larger molecules ie wood
120
Q

Compare and contrast fungal and vascular plant reproduction by describing three distinctive features of the genetics and lifecycles of the Kingdom Fungi

A

FUNGAL
- spores (asexual reproduction)
- unicellular diploid phase is protective and dormant
- prolonged dikaryotic phase due to separated cytoplasmic fusion and nuclear fission stages

121
Q

Euglenoids

A

Group of flagellates

  • photosynthetic and heterotrophic

Therefore, facultative heterotrophs

122
Q

Chlorophyll A vs B vs C

A

A: Chloroplast endosymbiosis, all plants and algae
B: Secondary endosymbiosis of euglenoids (green)
C: Secondary endosymbiosis of dinoflagellate (red)

Red Dino’s did not C the meteor

123
Q

Evidence some euglanoids gained photosynthesis via secondary endosymbiosis

A

Have chlorphyll B
Triple layer membrane
Heterotrophic tendencies

124
Q

Are lichens really symbiotic

A

fungi: gains organic carbon source
Algae: gains protection, water source

125
Q

Structure of lichen and function

A

OUTSIDE
- dense fungi: protection from extreme light and insects/predators/harsh conditions
- algae: organic carbon source. Photosynthesis
- spongey fungal layer (medulla): storage for water and air
- lower cortex: formation and attachment of rhizines

126
Q

Rhizines

A

Anchors body of lichen to substrate . Don’t absorb

127
Q

How do lichens acquire carbon and sulfur

A

Carbon: algae via photosynthesis
Sulfur: via rainfall from atmospheric deposits

128
Q

3 types of sexual reproduction

A

Conjugation
Fertilization
Alternation of generations

Biol 200 (2 decks)

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