Midterm Lecture

Question 1

D:Deviance

Answer 1

A recognized violation of a social norm.

Question 2

D: Relativist

Answer 2

●Relativism challenges the notion of absolute, universal standards of deviance.
- it posits that norms – and consequently, deviations from those norms – are situational and context-dependent.
- This means what is considered deviant in one situation or culture might not be viewed the same way in another.
- how are norms socially constructed across contexts

Question 3

D: Malum in se

Answer 3

wrong or evil in itself (an essentialist view)

Question 4

D: Malum prohibitum

Answer 4

wrong because it is prohibited; unlawful by virtue of statute
(a relativist view)
(failure to abide by norms)

Question 5

What are key features of the Relativist view of deviance?

Answer 5

Time-dependent
Culture-dependent
Situation-dependent

Question 6

Howard Becker and his theory

Answer 6

• Has a relativist approach that deviance is socially constructed
• Social response to the act (who imposes norms on others? How and why?)
• deconstructs functionalist approach

Question 7

Barbara Costello and her theory

Answer 7

• Cultural relativism is not productive
• empirical view (based on observation or experience)
• deviance needs to focus on crimes that have victims (behaviour that causes damage)
• Did a GSS survey: discovered people were more concerned with behaviours that have victims than those who don’t
• If behaviours are all relative/culturally dependent, how can we punish them?

Question 8

D: Cultural relativism

Answer 8

position that there is no universal standard to measure cultures by, all cultures and beliefs must be understood relative to their cultural context, and not judged based on outside norms and values

Question 9

Critiques of Costello

Answer 9

1. Gap between theory and empirical analysis
   - Claims that the study of deviance should focus on crime
   - Then she uses empirical example which is sexual behaviors (not criminal) so already there is a jump between where she starts and where she goes
2. Lack of cross-cultural comparisons
   - She rejects cultural relativism by saying there’s no difference between cultures
   - But to support this claim, she brings evidence from 1 source only which is GSS
   and a survey only done in the US → No cross-cultural comparison, not
   convincing
3. Only one case study
   - Makes a whole theoretical argument on this one study looking at sexual
   behaviors
   - Problematic to only use one case study and draw conclusions
   - Needs a lot more research
   - But she argues this is evidence to develop an entire theory
   Is homosexuality really normative?
   - Does society no longer see homosexuality as deviant since there is no victim?
4. 73% of respondents said they found homosexuality as wrong
   - This figure has changed over time
   - This does NOT support her argument that deviance is always involving a victim
5. “Facts” and cultural diversity
   - Is homosexuality normative? - cultures evolve and change overtime - what is considered a crime/norm fluctuates and is not static
6. Lack of historical insight

Overall:
- we must consider contextual and cultural differences in how societies define deviance
- societies are interested in policing behaviours that don’t have victims

Question 10

William Sumner

Answer 10

Deviance is the recognized violation of social norms

MORES: norms that carry great importance in our lives
- substantial social sanctions often grounded in formal laws

FOLKWAYS: norms for routine and casual daily interaction
- lesser social sanctions
- breaking these have less consequences

Difference:
MORES distinguishes between what society considers as good or bad
FOLKWAYS distinguishes between politeness and rudeness

Question 11

D: Ethnomethodology

Answer 11

The study of the methods and norms used to produce social order
researchers that study these norms are ethnomethodologists (like Borat!)

Question 12

D: Breaching experiments

Answer 12

• Daily life experiments seeking to examine people’s reactions to the violation of norms
• Ethnomethodologists partake in these to observe reactions (ie breaking rules of games, bargaining in the supermarket)
• allows us to see simple unwritten rules that make our everyday lives up that we don’t actively think about

Question 13

Theological (Demonological Approaches)

Answer 13

Fatalistic approach: Idea that since these people can’t control behaviours - no point in educating them

Assumes no criminal responsibility: source is external

• dominant until 18th century
• people commit behaviours due to possession by demons or Satan
• ## make body uncomfortable so demon leaves

Question 14

Classical Approaches

Answer 14

Cesare Beccaria (1764)
- new philosophy for deviance - people are rational and have full control over their behaviours (should be accountable)
- began in 18th century - influenced by Enlightenment when people were understood to be sensible

Goal of Punishment is deterrance
- punishment should be severe to deter crime

Jeremy Bentham
- believed punishment should be swift, certain, severe

ASSUMES FULL RESPONSIBILITY

Question 15

Classical and Theological comparison

Answer 15

• Neither considers personality, education, opportunities, etc.
• no hypothesis that can be tested, just philosophy about human nature that is just accepted
• these are philosophies of belief rather than scientific theories

Question 16

Neo-Classical approaches: Rational choice theory

Answer 16

individuals make rational informed decisions when they engage in deviant behaviours
- does benefit outweigh cost?

Cohen and Felson: Routine Activity theory
- suggests that people are more likely to commit crime under 3 factors
1. motivated offender
2. suitable target
3. absense of a clear punishment

Question 17

Problems with rational choice approaches?

Answer 17

Assumption of lack of impulsivity
- many people commit crimes impulsively
- large sanctions don’t deter offenders
- non-criminal deviance? (sexual, mental, substance)
- Ignores social factors related to crime

Question 18

Biological Approaches

Answer 18

Early Biological positivism: relationship between physical characteristics and criminality

Question 19

Frantz Joseph Gall:

Answer 19

(phrenology) the structure of skulls can tell us about deviance and personality

Question 20

Cesare Lombroso:

Answer 20

studied bodies of prisoners and found similar characteristics (ape-like) idea that they were less evolved
- atavism: physiologial resemblance to earlier stages in human evolution
- correlational (maybe specific types were targeted more by police?)

Question 21

William Sheldon: Constitutional theories

Answer 21

Found 4 basic body types correlated to specific qualities
1. Endomorph - overweight person (tend to be tolerant, friendly, laidback, lazy, selfish)
2. Mesomorph - athletic and muscular (more risktakers, competitive)
3. Ectomorph - thin and fragile (introverted and artistic)
4. Balanced Type - average build, no special traits

• said mesomorphs most likely to commit crimes
• while yes certain body types are linked to criminality (more likely to be charged) this is more likely due to their socio-economic standing

Question 22

Biolgical explanations are based on

Answer 22

1. chemical imbalance
2. hormones
3. genetics

Question 23

Modern Biological Explanations

Answer 23

Chemical imabalance

Hypoglycemia: low blood sugar = decreases moral judgement
- limited empirical support
- “Twinkie Defence” - too much sugar leads to decrease in judgement as cop kills mayor

Genetics and crime

• criminal family trees - researchers tried to show that people had familial connections to crime
  -eugenics: sterilize people to end crime (family line carries criminality)
• can be taught, not born with criminal capabilities
• “Supermale syndrome” - extra Y chromosome (overepresented in prisons)
• relationship between genes and behaviour is not clear

Neuropsychological factors

Fetal alcohol syndrome: children show reduced judgement, poor social skills
ADHD: show difficulties in learning (associated with delinquency)
- however these labels could create stigma - leading to crime committal

Sociobiology (evolutionary psychology)

• attempt to revive biological explanations with psychological factors
  The Cinderella Hypothesis (Daly and Wilson): step children who live with biological parents more likely to be abused
• evolutionary (parents programmed to protect genes)
• questionable evidence

Question 24

Critiques of: Why Men Rape (sociobiology)

Answer 24

• distort what feminist scholars are saying - yes there is a sexual/reproductive element to rape (but has to do with other elements also)
• there is no evidence for genetic or psychological mechanisms which lead to rape
• no evidence rape increases reproduction
• Extrapolation from lower species: jumping to scorpion flies to human beings is a huge jump
• Is rape really universal?: the authors claim that rape is in human nature because it is universal. However, there are large differences in rape rates between different cultures
• men loved this paper cuz it takes personal responsibility away from them

Question 25

Alternative findings for young women rape explanations

Answer 25

Main reason: Young women are actively dating younger men, and younger men are the main perpetrators of rape
- many victims are very young
- studies suggest suffering is not varied by age groups

Question 26

Ali, Naylor - “Intimate Partner Violence: A Narrative Review”

Answer 26

• attempt to understand what causes IPV
  Biological reasons: Head injuries, testosterone/seratonin, genetics
  Physiological: mental health, attachment theory (needs not met in childhood), self-esteem issues, communication skills, substance abuse.
• not conclusive - more research is needed

Question 27

Ali, Naylor - “Intimate Partner Violence: A Narrative Review”

Answer 27

• attempt to understand what causes IPV
  Biological reasons: Head injuries, testosterone/seratonin, genetics
  Physiological: mental health, attachment theory (needs not met in childhood), self-esteem issues, communication skills, substance abuse.
• not conclusive - more research is needed

Question 28

Psychological Explanations

Answer 28

Major motivational element here is personality (personality deficiency, abnormality, dysfunction etc.)

Focus on individuals - individualistic theories
- began with Freud and the development of psychoanalysis and human behaviour and personality theories

Question 29

Freud and Psychoanalysis

Answer 29

psychoanalysis and analysis of the soul: Each human being has natural biological drives and urges, which leads us to behave in
certain ways. he believed in “closed energy systems” which people have inside of them, pressures
that demand to be released.

Freud’s two most important drives: are sexual drives and aggressive drives.

Question 30

Freud: Structural Model of Personality

Answer 30

Freud thinks that our personality is made up of:

Id: (Pleasure Principle) basic drives and needs (pleasure principle)
most primitive part of our personality, entirely biological, present at birth
- ex. Drive for sex, attention, love, pleasure, food etc
- These needs require instant gratification, without regard to the surroundings
- babies learn limits to what they can have and become more realistic after

Ego: (reality principle) restraining the demands of ID and postponing gratification
- the ego is rational, always does reality checks, coordinates between reality and needs gratification
- find alternate ways to gratify the need

Super Ego: (consciences and morality) internalization of societal values (consciences and morality)
- This is developing a conscience – at some point, the child starts to understand that just eating candy in a store is morally wrong

Question 31

Freud: The importance of the superego?

Answer 31

Superego is too weak = aggression

Superego is too strong and breaks = psychosis

Superego is too strong but doesn’t break = neurosis

Breakdown of this:

Superego is a dam: a river as drives and desires (Id), but the river will drown if it runs free, so we need to build a dam (limitations that people put on us, ex. Parents) later on, we start to internalize these limitations and draw them ourselves.
- If we have a superego/dam that is too weak, the water flows past, urges run wild (this person didn’t internalize demands of society, acts on urges impulsively (ex. Sexual urges- raping, aggressive urges – killing, greed urges– stealing)

If we have a superego/dam that is too weak, the water flows past, urges run wild (this person didn’t internalize demands of society, and acts on urges impulsively)

Another option is a superego that is too strong – when the dam is too tight, it just collapses and breaks down

The water goes freely even more than before, according to Freud, when this happens, people become psychotic: serious mental illness, lost connection with reality, no longer able to deal with the wall, affects ability to partake in society

Superego is too strong but doesn’t break down => neurosis: milder forms of mental problems, not including hallucinations/delusions/dis-
contact from reality, but still distressing situations and behaviours (anxiety, phobia, depression, OCD, etc.)

According to Freud, many of us develop these things because of the strong demands of
society

In a healthy individual, the ego is a safety valve – allows the dam to let some water out in a balanced way so that the dam doesn’t break and cause problems

Question 32

Freud: the psychosexual theory of development

Answer 32

Basic principles: people are largely driven by sexual drives

Offers explanations for many behaviours, deviant and non-deviant

He says there are 5 stages of psychosexual development, and in each, a different part of
the body brings the child sexual pleasure

• each stage is necessary to become an adult

Erogenous zones: body parts that produce sexual pleasures at different stages

Fixation: getting stuck in one of the stages or moving on without solving the conflicts associated with the stage

Question 33

Freud: 5 stages of psychosexual theory of development

Answer 33

Stage 1: oral stage (1-1.5)
- Babies are fixated on their mouths, they suck on mom’s nipple because they are hungry but also because it gives them sexual pleasure

Stage 2: the anal stage (2-3)
- The rectum and bladder become the erogenous zone
- These children become occupied with feces
- Parents try to teach the child to go when and where it is acceptable, put some limits on it which is where the ego develops

Stage 3: the phallic stage (4-6)
- Children start to become preoccupied with their’s and other’s genitals
- Castration Anxiety: child is most afraid that the father will castrate them
Carl Yeung’s Electra Complex: girls will want to be like dad and resent mom, they have penis envy, see that men have a penis and want one too

(less important)
Stage 4: the Latency Stage (6-12)
- Decline in sexual urges, the “quiet period”, or even the “homosexual stage” because children hang out with children of their own gender in this period

Stage 5: the Genital Stage (12 onward)
- Sexual urges pick up again, genitals become erogenous zone
- causes rebellion - pent-up sexual desires

Question 34

Psychoanalytic world view

Answer 34

not many psychologists today practice psychoanalysis, but it still impacts approaches used
- To understand adult behaviours, we need to look at childhood (traumas, embarrassment, etc.) things like this influence later deviant behaviours
- It also allows us to understand a wide range of behaviours, including criminal and deviance, mental illness, substance dependency, etc.

Question 35

Freud Critiques

Answer 35

1. Most of the assumptions are speculative and non-scientific (not falsifiable)
   - it cannot be tested empirically, mostly based on personal
   observations with patients, small non-representative sample
2. The theory is largely post-hoc
   - It’s about seeing a problem, then looking at history to explain it (assuming that something will)
3. Assumption that women are incomplete people
   - Theory focuses on men and assumes that women are extensions of men
4. Lack of sensitivity to cultural variations
   - Ethnocentric approach
5. No empirical support for the psychosexual theory and adult fixations

Question 36

Hans Eysenck: Criminal Personality

Answer 36

argues that 3 dimensions of personality tie to criminality:
Extraversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism

• people who score high on one of these are more likely to be criminals
• Believes that crime is destiny, partly genetic, some people are harder to condition, born with poor judgement, cognitive skills, passed through generations
• Also a psychological element – issue of conditioning à some people (ex. extroverts) are harder to condition, don’t learn well from punishment

Question 37

Critiques of Hans Eysenck: Criminal Personality

Answer 37

1. Questionable empirical support: self-reported measures of personality, tend to be
   subjective and might lead to bias
2. Circular argumentation: past behaviors to predict future behaviors, use the psychoticism in past to predict whether you will act these ways in the future
3. Sees personality as stable

Question 38

D: Psychosis

Answer 38

Loss of touch with reality
- ties to aggression
- not strong correlation between violence and psychosis
- most people with mental illness aren’t violent
- crimes more likely causes by substance abuse or SES
- only about 5% of crimes

Question 39

D: Schizophrenia

Answer 39

most common form of psychosis, includes disordered thinking and perception of reality, delusions, strange logical associations, problems with emotions and feelings
- cause by genetics and environment

Question 40

D: APD

Answer 40

Cleckley: the Mask of Sanity book à first described APD
- Sometimes called a psychopath or sociopath, but APD is an umbrella term for these
- defining feature of APD is lack of empathy to others
- not disconnected from reality – they understand that others are
suffering, they just don’t feel sympathy
- In most cases, psychopaths are not criminal and are functioning members of the community
-They’re more likely to get in trouble than others and less likely to learn from experiences
- Also higher recidivism levels (reoffending)

Question 41

How common is APD?

Answer 41

Frequency: 1-4% (more common in men)
Convictions: 5-25% of the criminals in prison

this still doesn’t explain the large majority of criminal behaviours or deviance
There are also serious issues with the diagnosis and logic of APD à problems with identifying who has it

Question 42

Critiques of Bem’s work

Answer 42

1) Questionable empirical support:
- Gay people have many same sex friends – the San Francisco study just compared other sex friends, but not same-sex friends
- Siblings male/female ratios do not predict homosexuality
- Shaky cross-cultural evidence – the studies in Israel, New Guinea looked at attraction to 2 people, while this Bem looks at a whole group
2) Selection as an alternative explanation
- It could be selection causing a correlation - maybe homosexual children feel less comfortable associating with their own gender so that’s why they hang out with the
other gender
3) The theory neglects women’s experiences
- there are huge differences between male and female sexual and attraction experiences
- About 50% of gay men show at a young age gender nonconformity, while only about 5% of lesbian women do

Question 43

Critiques of Psychological Approaches

Answer 43

1)Post-hoc diagnosis and circular reasoning
- Diagnosis are often based on results of acts – the deviant act is considered evidence of mental illness and mental illness is used to explain the act (circular reasoning)
- (We define people with APD as being aggressive, and then we explain aggressive behavior as because of APD)
2) Establishing time order: We often can’t say what came first – did a personality manifest in a deviant act? Or did experiences related to deviant behaviours shed personality?
3) Failure to account for learning procedures: how do some people kill or steal without being caught? How do people get into social circles which support these acts?
4) there is no set of personality traits shared by all deviant (or non-deviant) people
- some deviant and some non-deviant people suffer from emotional instability

Question 44

Functionalist Approaches

Answer 44

Society is a system: every group, person and behaviour serves a function - they play a role in maintaining the social system

means that all acts/phenomena have a reason or function

breaking laws/norms can have a function - sometimes serves society beneficially

Similar to evolutionary approaches where behaviours only survive if they have a function
to society,

Question 45

Durkheim: Functions of Deviance

Answer 45

Crime and deviance are normal – part of society, integral part of social life (happen in all
societies)

deviance forms 4 main functions:
1) Confirmation of social and cultural value
- There cannot be good without bad, defining something as bad allows us to create and
maintain human morality
2) reaffirmation of social boundaries
- societies responses to deviance help us confirm norms and boundaries, confirm who is
and isn’t deviant (the boundary between them)
3) increasing social solidarity
- for Durkheim, crime and deviance prevent things from falling apart, prevent Anomie
(social disorder)
4) enabling social change
- Sometimes, the status quo is outdated, and deviance can help us gradually shift it and
update social norms (ie protesting)

Question 46

Kingsley Davis (1937): A functionalist analysis of prostitution

Answer 46

He described prostitution as a necessary phenomenon – the fact that it has held as a job
for so long indicates that it serves society
- It is a social service for those who cannot achieve sexual satisfaction in other ways
- In order to understand prostitution, we need to understand functions it serves in society

Question 47

Benefits of Functional Approaches?

Answer 47

Non-individualistic – provide an outlook related to the role of external factors for the
first time (as compared to biological, psychological, etc. approaches)
- sees deviant or criminal behaviour as also contributing to society and not 100% bad

Question 48

Functionalist approaches: critiques

Answer 48

1) Circular explanations (tautological approach):
- argues that social phenomenon and structures exist because they serve a social function
- how do we know they serve a function? because they exist - if they didn’t serve a function, they would have disappeared
2) Often non-falsifiable
3) Does crime really increase solidarity?
- We know of many cases where crime leads to people being terrified, socially isolated
4) A rigid view of societies as holistic and monolithic (integrated) (ignoring subcultures)
- Assumption that everyone shares core values and anyone who doesn’t share them is
deviant

This is a utilitarian approach – it’s okay for minorities to pay the price if it increases
the social cohesion of the larger portion of society (this is problematic)

Question 49

Merton – Strain Theory Reading

Answer 49

• He acknowledged that some social structures are dysfunctional, and don’t contribute to
  good but are still here

Anomie: a personal feeling of lack of social norms, disorder in the social world (things
feel like they are falling apart)

• According to Durkheim, this condition is aggravated in the social world and is
  responsible for certain phenomenon (like suicide)
• Merton identifies another gap that causes tension:

People have goals: targets and purposes set for us by our culture (what we grow up
thinking is desirable – professional success, marital success, fame, etc.)
- Means: the socially legitimate resources available to us for obtaining desired goals (ex.
education, financial support, personal resources like intelligence and charisma, etc.)
- Strain: The disparity between personal goals and personal means
- Deviance happens when someone doesn’t have the means to obtain socially desirable
goals

Leads to -

Conformity: ++ accepting goals and having means to achieve them (most people are in
this category)
Innovation: +- accepting goals but lacking the means to achieve them (ex. live in a poor neighbourhood, didn’t do well in school etc.)
- Therefore, they might turn to alternative means to achieve the goal – often times will
turn to deviance or criminality
Ritualism: -+ abandoning cultural goals of success or wealth but continuing to use legitimate means to make a living
Retreatism: –giving up cultural goals and legitimate means to attain them
- These people become deviant and are another class of deviant than those who are innovators
Rebellion: ++–rejection of goals and means in favour of other goals and means
- Instead of retreating, seek revolution (social, political, religious, etc.)

Question 50

Benefits of Merton’s theory?

Answer 50

• Highlights the importance of social inequalities and opportunities (these are under
  means)
• Many other theories so far haven’t mentioned this
• Acknowledges that some groups in society have different values and goals, and might
  view deviance differently
• This theory does lend itself to empirical testing

Question 51

Critiques of Merton’s theory

Answer 51

1) influenced by specific historical events
- We cannot consider absolute depravation as an indicator, we need to consider relative
depravation
(For example, people who have a phone and a home and bed might still be doing worse
than those around them)
2) assumptions of rationality and well-calculated decision-making
- Merton assumes that people look at their lives and options and then choose whether or
not to be deviant
3) there is no universal set of norms (goals)
4) time order and confusing cause and effect
- idea that people are deviant because they could not achieve goals in normative ways
5) focuses on the low SES classes, how to explain wealthy and successful people being
deviant? - Why do so many rich people cheat on taxes, embezzlement, etc.

Question 52

Robert Agnew: General Strain Theory

Answer 52

Refined the Merton’s strain theory
- Said that we should also focus power, not just money
- Also said that we should consider emotions, gender, race, age and associations with
criminal others

Emphasized the role of negative relationships that pressure individuals into crime

3 types of negative relationships:
1) with people who prevent goal achievement/prevent autonomy
2) with people who remove positive stimuli (ex. breaking a relationship, parent dying
etc.)
3) with people who present negative stimuli (ex. someone assaults you, a mean boss)
- these experiences lead to anger and deviance

Strain is especially likely to result in deviance when:
- 1) considered unjust
- 2) especially strong
- 3) perceived lack of control

Women react to strain in different ways – men are more affected by failure to achieve
and by status, are also more likely to react with moral outrage and to blame others for
failure - leads to more violent crimes

Question 53

Karl Marx: Conflict approaches key definitions

Answer 53

He viewed society as conflicted between two groups – the Bourgeoisie (higher class)
and Proletariat (lower class)

Bourgeoisie: Higher SES, control society, own means of production, take advantage of
the Proletariat
Proletariat: lower SES, do not own means of production
Infrastructure: basic relations of economic production and means of production
Superstructure: social institutions (banks, police, etc.) that help Bourgeoisie maintain
their power position

Here, idea that rich people are the bad guys, but they don’t do this because they are
evil, it’s more because they don’t have a choice
- The capitalist system forces them to exploit their workers, or otherwise they cannot
compete, will lose their business/land and become Proletariat

Question 54

Marx solution to Capitalism?

Answer 54

we need a revolution, he believes that it must and will happen
(Capitalism contains the seeds of it’s own destruction)

• Idea that eventually Proletariats will rise up and create a more fair system, the communist society
• What does this have to do with crime? The state and the system (superstructure) are
  part of the causes of crime – anyone who questions society is likely to be deviant or
  criminal (laws are there to prevent change that threatens the system)

Question 55

Spitzer: A Marxian Theory of Deviance Reading

Answer 55

According to Spitzer, the people defined as deviant are those who somehow disturb the
capitalist system/order
1) Those who challenge private ownership of goods
Ex. robbers, people who embezzle
2) Those who cannot or refuse to work
- Beggars and people who choose not to work, or who are disabled or mentally ill and cannot work are considered deviant
3) Some of those who abuse substances, but not all
- Not all drugs are considered illegal or deviant – coffee, nicotine, some amounts of
alcohol, prescription drugs are legal and even considered socially acceptable and
encouraged
- Marxist writers asked why that is, and according to them, the difference is in the effect
of these drugs on people’s abilities to cope and to work, in order to contribute to the capitalist society
4) Those who disobey authority
- Obedience to authority is crucial for maintenance of the capitalist system
5) Those who actively fight against the capitalist ideology and the current world order
- Anyone who is labelled as socialist or communist is labelled as bad – challenge strict
economic calculations

Question 56

Critiques of the Marxist approaches

Answer 56

1. largely non-falsifiable, cannot be empirically tested
2. Criminal activities hurt the lower classes most
   - why no proletariat uprising?
3. Tough to explain hard violence
   - weak in accounting for violent or sexual crimes
4. Communist societies still have crime/deviance (ex. China, Cuba)
   - Countries with better welfare systems (ex. North America) with a socialist approach may have lower crime rates, but it also may be due to other variables
5. Marxist theories divide people only into rich and poor, which is problematic because
   most people today in Western societies belong to the middle classes

Question 57

Difference between Marxist and Neo-Marxist

Answer 57

Neo-Marxist is more nuanced, realizes that Marx may have been wrong about there
being a revolution (most societies still have capitalism)

Instead of focusing on economic divide, they focus on power division more generally
(some social groups have less power, and they aren’t necessarily all poor people)
- These groups include women, sexual minorities, ethnic and racial minorities, etc.

Question 58

Feminist approaches

Answer 58

1) critiquing androcentric (male-centric) theories of women’s deviance
- Criminology used to focus only on men, and even when women were talked about, it
was always from a male point of view
2. Critiquing naturalistic views (about the “natural” differences between men and women)
- The idea that crimes happen more among men does not mean that women are less
violent, etc. by nature
- There are other factors, such as the fact that society idolizes assertive/aggressive male
heroes but not women heroes
3. A spotlight on women’s victimology
- Criminologists originally focused more on who are the criminals, but what about the fact
that most violence is by men against women?
- This victimology leads to increased stigma against these women, ruining their future
career chances, etc.
4. The culture of masculinity and violence
- Feminism and gender studies are not just about women, we need to study the culture of
masculinity
- Cultural impact on school shooters?

Question 59

Lombroso: the female offender

Answer 59

• Lombroso argues that physical characteristics associated with men’s criminality are less
  prevalent in women
• women are less visibly criminal
• Against idea that criminal women are more similar to men? muscular strength, intense
  passions, deceitful
• idea that deviant women also lack most important qualities of being a woman (ex. wanting
  to be a mother)
• like a prostitute!

Question 60

Pollak: criminality of women

Answer 60

Claims that women criminality is related to biological stages (menstruation, pregnancy,
menopause)
- During these stages, women have less emotional balance, and more emotional insecurity, so
they are most likely to commit crimes
- The typical women to commit crimes is deceitful, vengeful, emotional

Chivalry hypothesis:
Women commit equal criminality as men, but the true level of it is unknown or masked by chivalry in the justice system
- Treats women better – won’t be as likely to be caught or prosecuted, likely to receive
lighter punishments

There is research showing that chivalry in the justice system does exist, but only for
women who conform to social norms (ex. they are mothers, attractive, etc.)
- If they do not conform to social norms, there is not chivalry

Question 61

Labelling Theory:

Answer 61

Tannenbaum (1938): The dramatization of Evil
- From judgements of acts to judgements of people (tagging/stigmatization)

Tag - start to think of the person, not the action as evil
Results in the person thinking they are what they were called

Another process of tagging = stigmatization
Start branding a specific type of person as evil and deviant

Question 62

Becker (1963); Labelling and the relativity of deviance

Answer 62

Labelling and the relativity of deviance (a relativist, non-positivist approach)

• Deviance is not something that simply exists in the world
• For behaviour to become deviant or criminal - someone must suggest it is
• Who gets to call the actions deviant or not?
• Elites can essentially define less powerful people as deviant

Question 63

Non-positivist vs relativist

Answer 63

Non-positivist (assume deviance as real entities) theory

Relativist theories (believes deviance exists only when someone says it exists)

Question 64

Cicourel: Pre-labeling

Answer 64

• Police officers, the larger public, engage in pre-labelling
• Use common stereotypes to access what groups will commit criminal acts
• When deviant act happens - quicker to respond to those with labels (we think we know which individuals are most likely to commit crimes)

Question 65

Edwin Lemert (1951) - The Process of Labeling

Answer 65

theory that tries to explain the process of becoming deviant/acquiring a deviant label

primary deviance - small acts of rule-breaking that many of us engage in (mild social reaction - no effect on self-image)

secondary deviance - when one internalizes a deviant identity, integrating it into their self-image (like shoplifting)

Might then push them to further deviant behaviour - Becomes self-fulfilling prophecy

Once they are stigmatized - they engage in retrospective labeling “they always knew they were that way”

Becomes part of life and career
Overshadow everything else about the person (prostitute, junkie)

Question 66

Devah Pager - mark of a criminal record

Answer 66

Race was a powerful master label - when sending out resumes - employers more likely to call back whites with a criminal record than blacks

Once you have been marked with a criminal record, your entire life is impacted

Employers tended to assume criminality in certain groups

Question 67

Critiques of Label Theory

Answer 67

1. Neglects the main question we have been asking: Why does deviance happen?
2. Is social response only thing that drives people to crime? How do we account for serious crime?
3. Not enough attention on deviance in adulthood and long-term effects of deviance
4. Questionable empirical support

Re-integrative shaming -
Sometimes labelling can be empowering/helpful

Question 68

Control theory

Answer 68

Based on social cohesion/integration

Two systems of control
Formal control - the legal system
Informal control - key system - takes place in the interaction with others

Reckless - containment theory:

• Put pressures/limits to not be deviant
• External commitment to people and institutions
• Inner commitment - willingness of a person to follow social norms and expectations (low tolerance or frustration)
• Without it, society would fall apart

Many crimes don’t get reported
only 10% of crimes are caught
- smaller to serious crimes
Why is it after hearing these statistics not more motivated to go out and commit crimes?
Should we question conformity to laws?

Question 69

Hirschi -Social Bonds Theory

Answer 69

4 components of integration/social bond

1. Attachment (respect/affection) - more attached less likely to break
2. Commitment - investment in conforming behaviours
3. Involvement - in activities and communities
4. Belief - believe in common social norms/respect authorities
   In line with positivism

In line with positivism

Question 70

Critique of control theory

Answer 70

1. Assumption that there is a natural motivation to commit deviance
   - All primarily self-interested, and we need something to stop us from instinctual tendency to break norms and laws
2. some people are motivated regardless of external factors
   Assumption of rationality
3. assumption of rationality
4. Dosen’t account for deviant acts by those who are highl connected to others and have a lot to lose
5. Empirical support is quite mixed
   social bonds aren’t the best predictors of criminality/deviance

If you are attached to criminal others - the best predictor of you becoming a criminal