Final lectures Flashcards

Question

Criminalizing clients

Answer 1

- rarely enforced in Canada - but forced to still work in unsupervised spaces (leading to greater risk of violence/mispractice) as clients need to be made anonymous/cant be traced -Gives police a lot of power to extort/abuse sex workers - Makes sex work less safe - protection from std’s - proven to not reduce/deter prostitution even when there is a severe punishment - How are they supposed to advertise services if being a client is illegal and procuring is illegal - Unable to work in the street or unable to sustain a home - must work in isolated locations - Need to pay a fine after being caught

Answer 2

Moral objection - means normalizing sex work to decriminalize it

Answer 3

- NZ decriminalized sex work - reduced the harm to the sex workers the most - Safest policy - Worked with sex workers to develop policies

Answer 4

Religious arguments - based on scripture and convictions Biological/evolutionary arguments - Mixed with moral arguments 1. Heterosexual relationships are needed for reproductions (necessary for reproduction of the human race) Counterargument: Why do we need more people (overpopulation) You can still have kids in a homosexual relationship Why is sex linked to reproduction - many reasons why 2. unnatural - Errors of nature (no gay animals) Counterargument: why does natural mean good? Not true! - animals be gay How can ideologies shape science? For the last decades, zoologists ignored/underreported homosexuality in animals (believing behaviour does not exist or should not exist) Aside from morals - arguments like Animals cant be homosexual like people are because they don't have self-identity/culture Animals aren't homophobic - a uniquely human trait Most of our beliefs are culturally conceived 3. Universality - Nothing universal about rules and norms against homosexuality - Sex was not considered sinful in many Indigenous communities

Answer 5

How do we develop sexuality? From a religious point - sin but we can help them choose differently by limiting certain factors Biological perspectives: genes, brain structures, chromosomes, parental hormones - The biological claim has support among gay rights activists - “Remove choice” - it is something innate - Evidence is inconclusive - To date: not one simple biological cause No specific gene - Doesn't mean biology has nothing to do - hormone composition can be evidentiary Psychological perspectives Freud - believed it was a biology/problem in the process of sexual development Did not believe tendencies could be changed by treatment

Answer 6

The argument is that; if our erotic bond (first one) is to our mother; the natural sexual orientation of both men and women is - we are all naturally attracted to women (bond with our mothers) - Based on Freud's psychology - Mother is caregiver/nurturer * Compulsory heterosexuality – the idea that heterosexuality is the only normative/viable practice (for both men and women) *The lesbian existence – A broad spectrum of women’s relationships with other women - She talks about it in historical context, the continuous creation of it and repression of it *The lesbian continuum – the realization that lesbianism is about more than just sexuality. It also includes erotica, comradeship, compassion, etc. - She’s saying, a woman doesn’t need to identify herself as lesbian or engage in sex with women to feel a sense of natural closeness to other women which is part of this continuum - The most important point is this questioning of heterosexuality being the natural way of being

Answer 7

Behavior: 100% of sexual acts with same sex → 0% with same sex Orientation: 100% of fantasies involve same-sex→ 0% involving same sex - Can be anywhere in between Identity: 100% self defined “Homosexual” → 100% self defined “heterosexual” - You’re near the middle if you’re bisexual - Often there’s a correlation between the 3 behaviors - Can also be independent - Don’t need to be dichotomous - You could identify as heterosexual, have 50% of fantasies of members of your own sex and occasionally have sex with people of your own sex

Answer 8

“Straight all” (OkCupid: 250,000 profiles) Study shows lack of correlation between identity, fantasies, behavior - Study asks, have you ever had a sexual encounter with someone of the same sex? - 66% of straight men said no and I would never - Different for straight women: More than half either had or would like to have sex with another women - “Bisexual - both men and women” - Only 23% send messages to both men and women - Most who identify as bisexual only send messages to one gender or another - This is discrepancy between self identity (bisexual) and behaviors - These studies show how people self identify, what kind of fantasies (sexual orientation) and how they actually behave in their real life

Answer 9

- There is difference between self-identity (heterosexual) and behavior (having sex with men - homosexual) - Almost half the people who participated in these sex trades did not self-identify as homosexual, not even bisexual; they had self-identity of heterosexual and yet they engaged in homosexual behaviour - Discrepancy between identity & behavior as well as identity & orientation - It’s hard for people to accept this continuity and different dimensions of homosexuality

Answer 10

Subjects did not know they were being studied → Deception - No consent - He was following people home - He tracked down their license plates, found out their addresses, went to their homes, knocked on the door, and pretended to be doing a survey on health

Answer 11

1. Dichotomization of sexuality - Oversimplify complex behaviours (gay, straight, bi, etc) 2. No recognition of various dimensions - Much more fluid - Not simple explanation (complex) 3. The assumption of hetero-normativity - Homosexuality is deviant and needs to be explained (assumption) - This implies we don’t need to explain heterosexuality and it’s just already there

Answer 12

Religion - Grew up surrounded by religious ideas where homosexuality is considered a sin Language - “Husband & Wife” “King and queen” - Homosexual slurs “That’s so gay” Psychology - Up until 1988, homosexuality was considered a mental disorder in the DSM Science and the education system - Elimination of gays and gay practices from history books - Homosexual practices in animals was completed eliminated from biology and zoology books The mass media - Disney movies; princess and prince The legal system (gay marriage) - Challenges to gay marriage, adoption - Early legislation that had punish for homosexuality (other countries still punish for being gay) Politics - - Still relatively few gay politicians - Being a good family man is a precondition in US Health care - Discrimination in medical treatments for gay/bisexual people Sports - “Manly non gay masculinity sports stars”

Answer 13

1. The vilification of heterosexuality and of men: - There is also a beautiful, soft, non repressed version of heterosexuality - Not all women are repressed by men - History of heterosexuality is not only about exploitation and power relations 2. Essentialist assumptions - You assume all women have lesbian feelings - repressive assumption - We shouldn’t go to the other extreme and present homosexuality and lesbianism as natural - The assumption that lesbianism and male homosexuality is essentially different is also problematic

Answer 14

- Various cues like higher voice, sassiness, showing emotion - Homosexuality is gender non-conforming (anything that is not masculine enough) - Today, it’s mostly about being more like a woman and being feminine - Gayness is a discourse of deviance from normal feminine/masculine - Gay bashing is not actually about sexual preferences; it’s more about finding a victim that’s not manly enough

Answer 15

We can think about homosexuality as a modern witch-hunt - Men constantly have to prove that they’re not gay (not a witch), especially during adolescence and in certain social groups - There’s a continuous test and you can never fail it - Constantly doing impression management on others and yourself - ou can never really prove that you’re not gay - Not even by getting married or having children - Because it could always be what Freud called reaction formation - If you’re an out of the closet gay, it’s a form of liberation in some ways - You can let go of some of these defenses and try to prove all the time that you aren’t gay even though you really are Seinfeld: On one hand, there’s nothing wrong with being gay, on the other hand, men are scared as being perceived as gay/feminine/non-masculine

Answer 16

1. Emotional constipation: - Unable to express feelings even in their families - Need to explain and justify yourself - Gay bashing - Fear of violence - Knowing people don’t accept who you are - Fear of coming out - Legal discrimination; workplace discrimination - Homophobia is harmful not just for gay people but also for straight men - Not showing pain or fear towards family 2. Avoiding friendships with other men 3. Avoiding “girly” activities 4. Constantly demonstrating (hetero)sexual libido - Chasing women - Always wanting to have sex (always ready) - Performing in a manly dominant way - Not trying too hard in school because it’s gay to be a good student 5. Actively engaging in unhealthy and risky behaviour - Overdrinking - Not wearing a seatbelt in the car (don’t show weakness)

Answer 17

- All women need to police themselves so they’re not seen as “too manly” or “not feminine enough” = gender non-conforming - Pressured to fulfill “good wife/mother” roles - Avoiding taking charge or speaking out because that’s not feminine - Being careful about not being too aggressive - Follow feminine ways: grooming, makeup etc. Toxic masculinity has to do a lot with the conflation of sexuality and gender

Answer 18

Video: Love has no labels: “I can’t change, even if I tried, even if I wanted to” - Rethink bias - Certain relationships are changing from the realm of deviant to the realm of being normal - Love is love and it has no boundaries... to an extent - Canadian census - There is an option for relationships with different genders, but not an option for have multiple partners

Answer 19

Some forms of incest (sex between mother and son) are considered deviant in virtually every culture - There is still alot of cultural variability in the definition of incest

Answer 20

Monarch sibling marriages: ancient Egypt, Inca Peru, Japan, Burma, Korea, Hawaii, and Early modern Europe - Siblings having sex and children were accepted and sometimes encouraged - Ancient China: First cousins with different surnames were permitted and sometimes encouraged to have sex (but with the same surname; not allowed) 19th century England: Cousin marriages - Charles Darwin and his wife Emma - Cousin marriages were quite common; the norm In some Middle Eastern societies: 30% of all marriages today are cousin marriages - To this day, some cousin marriages are encouraged in these societies

Answer 21

Canada - Legal definition: Having a sexual relationship with a sibling (including a half-sibling), child/parent, or grandchild/grandparent while knowing the existence of the blood relationship - Punishment: Up to 14 years in prison US - Legal definition: Also includes aunts/uncles - Punishment: Up to life in prison - In most European countries, there are laws against incest, but it’s usually not enforced when the relationship is between two consenting adults

Answer 22

Edward Westermarck (The History of Human Marriage; 1889) - “There is an innate aversion to sexual intercourse between persons that grew up together” - The key factor is close association during childhood there’s an obvious problem with testing this: Social taboo exists - We always heard that incest is something we shouldn’t even think about

Answer 23

1. Ethological Studies - Inbreeding avoidance (no breeding at all) and reduced inbreeding in animals (that grew up together) - Problem: Concluding animals and comparing it to humans experience 2. Anthropological/natural experiments - Taiwanese “MinorMarriages” - taiwanese “Minor Marriages” - Families that adopted a daughter to be the future wife of the son Wolf (1966) found that: - Higher divorce rates - Higher infedelity rates - Lower fertility rates - All a result of sexual aversion Israeli Kibbutzim - Rural collective communities with a combined Zionist and Marxist ideology - Joint ownership of property, and cooperation in production and consumption - Until the late 1980s: Cooperative education system that created a sibling-like setting for child rearing - Children of Kibbutz - Very few resulted in marriages

Answer 24

1. Operationalization of aversion: Marital rates ,divorce rates ,infidelity rates, fertility rates - Not asking how these people are feeling 2. A leap of logic: From less attraction to sexual aversion

Answer 25

Only 2 interviewees (both women) described something close to sexual aversion - Almost half of the interviewers said they felt indifferent - About half of them reported moderate or strong attraction towards peers who grew up together Avoidance of Actual Relationships - There was clearly a negative message; someone felt it would be incestuous even though they’re not related and just grew up closely together - Negative messages about relationships between same-group peers Fear of rejection - Not being willing to deal with the consequences - One of the strongest explanations was apprehension of hurting the group’s integrity - This explains why the few relationships that did happen, happened after the group dynamic dissolved Conclusion of Shor’s study This study does NOT provide support for Westermarck’s “Aversion Hypothesis” - Substantial support for sociological theories emphasizing the roles of group cohesion and individual cost-calculations - Incest avoidance has many reasons, beyond just the lack of basic attraction; it has to do with incest taboo, not wanting to hurt the family, and age differences.

Answer 26

Morality - Offensive - not right Biology - Health problems in offspring 40% of children born from incest might suffer from some birth defect - 10% mild to severe cognitive issues Psychology - Uneven power relationships/room for abuse - Most powerful argument - The danger of history - relations (grooming etc) - Consider many couples are subject to these same issues - Concrete examples of siblings meeting and having a family - state intervened

Answer 27

Sexual urges/fantasies - Doesn't have to be behavioural - Indication of a disorder is when they act on sexual urges

Answer 28

Studies survey - Young college men - 10% said young people were interesting to them - 10% said thoughts about teenagers - 40-80% of men experience arousal when shown pictures of young women

Answer 29

sickness/evil - lack of morality - no need to try and understand beyond that Psychological approaches: contagion - the “vampire syndrome” - If you've been abused you will go on to become an abuser - Maybe higher likelihood - not systematic studies - how to definitively prove it happened - Hard to show causality - what about other variables? - Also stigmatizes victims - many survivors feel they are now contaminated Biological approaches - an inborn sexual orientation - incurable and intractable - Caused by genes? - Some case studies support this Suffer from severe epilepsy - damages brain - caused appetite for food/sex - Was arrested and syndrome was brought up - Can have ethical and legal repercussions - Can have some biological causes - Some research suggests that some people are born as pedophiles Sociological approaches: - historical context, cultural context, definitions, and the dimensions of sexuality

Answer 30

- Historically not always as negative as it is today - Ancient greece: pederasty - Was normal behaviour for men and young boys - Historical and cultural diversity The sambia in the 1970s - Expected to give oral to older men by young boys - Part of sexual training Most said it was fine Many developing societies - women are forced to marry at a young age - have sex with husbands (not considered deviant) Western culture - 19th century europe - foucault wrote his book on sexuality - Said age of consent was 12 Victorian era feminists fight child prostitution - 1977 - french intellectuals signed a petition that children are able to give consent to sexual relationships - Many philosophers - supported by mainstream newspapers

Answer 31

- Sexual puberty - can be varied between children - Age of consent is defined as 18 in many countries In canada - 16 In Us between 16-18 Pedophilia - a makeover of children's products to be more sexualized Children in ad campaigns/TV shows Women blur boundaries trying to look underage Gender roles - older women and younger men Heterosexuality is treated differently than homosexuality Media blurs these boundaries How about younger children? 6/7/8 year old

Answer 32

Behaviour: Orientation: Identity: On a scale Some say they mostly have sex with adults and only sometimes with children True for half of cases of pedophilia Had relations with a child - but mostly don’t Or say they don't have fantasies about children (say it is an exception) Never attempt to have sexual relationships with children Even those who acknowledge attraction to kids Small minority abuse children Some don’t but would like to - think about norms and laws Those who are attracted to kids but would never act on it are highest percentage - Most try to hide it from themselves or others - Try to hide it from those around them Celibate pedophiles believe in public sentiments - kids cant give consent If they do - should be punished Argue that it is not a choice Some don’t have psychological help or other venues to express how they feel

Answer 33

- As a venue for self-expression 1. Books 2. Computer generated 3. Internet Group 4. Studies show that pedophiles often experience fantasies before acting out on urges Catholic priests watch porn before engaging in pedophilia - In states where pornography became more available - no increase but a decline in sex crimes - Pornography does not necessarily increase behaviours 1996 - makes illegal to create or possess even if not real children - Possible that there is a causal relationship - should limit production and distribution of some materials - But a lot of media contains questionable subject material already

Answer 34

Typical abusers - more than 90% are someone the child already knows (older children or other family members) Priorities should be - how do we protect children What happens if they have no one to talk to - or therapy groups to discuss the issue - Mental health professionals show very little willingness to treat people with pedophilic tendencies - Shows no compassion for people - Do you want them to be able to get help

Answer 35

A man who is very suspicious. He doesn't trust anybody and he's sure that everybody is against him. Sometimes he thinks that people he sees on the streets are talking about him or following him. A couple of times now, he has beaten up his wife terribly and threatened to kill her, because he said, she was working against him too, just like everyone else.

Answer 36

A young woman in her twenties. She hasn't had a job, and she doesn't seem to want to go out and look for one. She is a very quiet girl, she doesn't talk much to anyone except her own family, and she acts like she is afraid of people, especially young men her own age. She won't go out with anyone and when someone comes to visit her, she stays in her own room until they leave. She just stays by herself and daydreams all the time, and shows no interest in anything or anybody.

Answer 37

A man who has a good job and is doing pretty well at it. Most of the time he gets along all right with people, but he’s always very touchy and he always loses his temper quickly if things aren’t going his way or if people find fault with him. He worries a lot about little things, and he seems to be moody and unhappy all the time. Everything is going along all right for him, but he can’t sleep at night, brooding about the past and worrying about things that might go wrong

Answer 38

A man who never seems to be able to hold a job very long because he drinks so much. Whenever he has money in his pocket, he goes on a spree; he stays out till late hours drinking, and never seems to care what happens to his wife and children. Sometimes, he feels very bad about the way he treats his family; he begs his wife to forgive him and promises to stop drinking, but he always goes off again.

Answer 39

A 50-year old woman who lives with her husband. The neighbors remember her as someone who was happy and took good care of her husband and family. Her three sons have already completed their studies and are married. Though living in different places, they visit on occasion. She appears different over the last several years in that all she does is stay home. She speaks slowly and cries, eats and sleeps little, and appears to be very unhappy.

Answer 40

In 1950’s people were introduced to sample populations and asked what they thought was a mental disorder ■ 75% of people thought paranoid schizophrenia ■ 18% for anxiety disorder ■ 29% for alcoholism ■ Nothing on depression studies ○ In ’50s, only 18% of people thought anxiety was a mental disorder ■ Drastic change compared to today ○ Change is also reflected in the range of conditions in DSM-5

Answer 41

As norms change in society, so do the categories of mental illness ○ Like how the DSM has changed over time- incorporating more criteria for mental illnesses

Answer 42

Ancient times: A theological/demonological approach ○ Madness was common ○ Spiritual being: gods/devils possessing the body and influencing the person ○ Idea of the “born criminal” and “madman” ■ They thought disease is due to physical cause ■ Burning at the stake! Classical Greece: A medical model (Hippocrates - bodily humors) ○ First time there was medical model ○ Madness is a result of imbalance of bodily humours ■ Today, we would say mental ilness is chemical imbalance in the brain Medieval Europe: The Theological model returns ■ Similar to Ancient times ■ “All diseases including madness is being sent by God” The Age of Enlightenment: The medical model and the “great confinement” ○ Convergence of all models ■ Michelle Foucault: “Madness and Civilization” (1961) ■ Theological + Medical = Age of Enlightenment ○ This did not really approve the treatment for people with mental illness problems ● There’s no longer public executions

Answer 43

For Foucault, this era (age of Enlightenment) had a lot to do with the “great confinement” In 17th century, Foucault calls it great confinement era - Society replaced the practice of capital punishment (death penalty) with the imprisonment of people deemed deviant or insane, in prisons and asylums ○ Leader of post-modernist movement ○ Most cited scholar in sociology and humanities ○ Foucault believed that the confinement of the mentally ill was a result of a a society that placed a high value on labour and viewed idleness as the chief sin What do we mean by saying Foucault is a postmodernist? ○ Failures of modern society ○ He talks about how these can be addressed and what to do moving forward ○ Moving away from theological model and towards medical model is a positive thing Book follows the history of madness in the west before the middle ages ○ Example of witches burning at the stake ■ A Lot of it had to do with the church → theological model

Answer 44

○ Many people were put into prisons ○ Others were sent to mental institution ■ Since these people are “mad” they should be locked up and treated like animals ● Foucault wrote about how to discipline bodies is an important component in how to deal with the “mad” and “useless” ● New society: How can we maintain order & use capitalism to do it ○ “Sent to institution if you won’t cooperate in society” ○ If you’re deviating by the norm and don’t abide by order - you are useless and will be put into institution Profits were made - capitalizing this ○ Benefiting the “crazy” people from housing them and charging them for it ● Categories in each of these eras were fluctuating and this list of “crazy people” grew significantly A lot of people became mentally ill because there was research being done in prisons and they used inmates for tests

Answer 45

Scholars considered this a great improvement (moving to a more scientific model for classifying the mentally ill) because we’re pushing theological ideas away and bringing in doctors etc. ○ Foucault claimed the medicalization of mental illness did not provide a means for better treatment ■ He believed the new treatments were even less humane and more humiliating than the previous ones ○ Same argument for prisons: It’s not helpful to just put labels on inmates and diagnose them but not actually help them

Answer 46

● Paris, 1794 ● Mademoiselle is about to get decapitated ● The Charenton Asylum for the mad ● Contention between religious ministers and science doctors ○ Science won in terms of how to treat the mentally ill

Answer 47

○ What came off of this? Massive institutionalization & imprisonment ○ New jobs were created to help build this prison ■ Doctor, psychiatrist.... All fairly new professions ○ Highlights Foucault’s point → This didn’t improve the treatment for patients in mental hospitals Perception of madness = lack of reason / rationality ○ Those who suffer from lack of rationality are a kin to animals State is a key player ○ The state controls so many facets of our lives because there’s profit there ● Back in the day, unusual behaviors/preferences were considered to be a mental illness ○ Even today; kinks, pedophilia, incest ■ Socially described ● These things might be legal in one country and not in the other

Answer 48

- Largely influenced by Freud, who looked at Hysteria (mostly women, but also in men) - People with Hysteria suffered from insomnia, cramps, emotional outbursts, etc (missed some here)... it was thought to be physical symptoms but with psychological roots - It was thought to be due to sexual tension, so a treatment was to masturbate the women until they orgasm – to lead to sexual release - By the early 20th century, the number of women with hysteria declined, and now it is no longer considered a disorder (split into different disorders, such as depression, anxiety, epilepsy and other physical disorders...) - Had something to do with the sexual revolution, feminist movements etc.

Answer 49

Freud attributed much of mental problems to societal repression - This is the first time that mental illness is not seem as something that comes from within the body (ex. a demon or phlegm) but is to do with the world around - Also allows for more minor forms of mental disorders that also need attention and treatment

Answer 50

- Influence of psychology continues to grow - Medical-physical model continues to be dominant as well - Treatments include: - Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) – common in 40s and 50s, where an electric shock was passed through the brain, not painful but led to some memory loss and neurological damage, and may not actually be effective - Lobotomy – common in the US in 40s and 50, where you remove connecting part of the brain, used to treat mental disorders, has effective results where patients became more quiet and less violent but also stopped doing other things and 15% of people who received these would die after the procedure - Drug therapy – used in 40s, 50s, and 60s to treat disorders, continued to be used and now considered the major treatment for many mental disorders although does draw critiques - Rise of pharmaceutical companies, attempts to medicalize sadness, madness and sexuality (ex. Viagra)

Answer 51

- Psychiatric model is still dominant, but sociologically informed psychologists started to criticize medical models in the 60s, and the dichotomy between normal and abnormal

Answer 52

- idea that mental illness is a myth and symptoms can be explained in different ways (ex. hearing voices might be communicating with ancestors, rather than schizophrenia) - believed that symptoms were real, but he challenges causes and explanations - He believed that mental illness is a social construct - He says that a disease is what you have, but a behavior is what you do - Labelling and power relations: idea that women are labelled with hysteria if they are not behaving to men’s liking - - Drapetomania: a medicalization of people who want to escape their masters (people who wanted to escape slavery) - Also believes that psychiatry is a pseudoscience, pretends to be scientific (ex. heart break and heart attack are similar but one is a metaphor and one is an actual scientific condition)

Answer 53

- based on peer observation in a mental institution - total institution: here people are cut off from rest of the world, live together with formal rules and staff that regulates life (ex. an asylum, prison, boarding school, convent, military, Victorian orphanages, some retirement homes, work/concentration camps) - - Inmates in an asylum are taught the role of the good patient, which is being dull, harmless, inconspicuous - However, this role leads to a continued stay here - Disculturation: they start to look at themselves as pathological, rather than being improved or cured, they become less capable at dealing with the outside world and are not being reintegrated into the world - This model assumes that you can take broken people out of the environment, fix them and then return them, which isn’t true, ends up being more harmful

Answer 54

- He took 8 people, had them pretend they had a mental health condition to be institutionalized - these people reverted back to normal behaviors one they were institutionalized - but the label schizophrenic stuck to them, and it took months to be released - even then, they were labelled schizophrenic in remission - it’s hard to remove these labels, and people are treated differently based on labels in and out of institutions - in another experiment, he sent over 100 patients to an institution who had previously had disorders, and because doctors were now suspicious of him, they only diagnosed 3⁄4 of them - this shows how diagnoses can be inaccurate and biased

Answer 55

- There were many diagnosis differences across western cultures, and even larger variation comparing western to non western - In one study, about 85% of American psychiatrists diagnosed someone, but only like 7% of British psychiatrists did - - The power of labelling: people forget how important labelling is in people’s behavior - Assumption of intrinsic illness: people ignore how institutions shape people, and assume the sickness is inside people rather than outside

Answer 56

- Said that one of Rosenhan’s patients actually had a positive experience in the institution, and wasn’t included in the experiment - Good reason to believe that Rosenhan may have made up some of the cases - - Cahalan also had a hospitalization for Bipolar disorder, but found that doctors treated her differently once they discovered neurological issues (physical illness - more real) than for when they thought it was just mental illness - - This stigma doesn’t just impact the patient, but also health professionals - Can affect the patient – may remove some of the responsibility for their actions but may also lead them to withdraw from society more (ex. schizophrenia diagnosis)

Answer 57

- Normal vs abnormal - The sane are not sane all the time – all of us loose our temper sometimes that seems like for no good reason, do irrational things, have periods of depression and anxiety etc. - - The criteria for diagnosis are not present most of the time for most people though - If someone has a hallucination because they took a drug, we wouldn’t deem this a problem, but we would if they have a random hallucination that we cannot find an explanation for - So, what is the threshold that pushes someone from sane to insane? Where does someone need to be to be mentally ill? Who gets to decide this? Is it based on objective criteria? No. - - The criteria we use are based on the subjective interpretation of the diagnostician of the things the patient also subjectively tells them - There are differences in cultures – people may think and communicate differently in ways that a white western doctor might not see or understand

Answer 58

- Tendency to institutionalize people in asylums was greatly reduced by almost 90% - This happened in much of the Western world and also many non western countries - Main reasons for this: - Academic critiques, especially in sociology: politicians actually listened to sociologists - - Drug therapy: many advances, solid breakthroughs (ex. SSRIs), which allowed people to regulate their problems and stay in the community - The civil rights movement: idea that we shouldn’t institutionalize people against their will - Economic considerations: allowing people to stay in society stops draining so many governmental resources etc. - Deinstitutionalization has had many benefits, but also problems - - In the US, they didn’t really account for the impact of suddenly releasing people from institutions (ex. they were released without proper resources or support) - Many of them ended up homeless, no money for treatment, etc. - About 1 third of homeless people in the US are people who were released from institutions

Answer 59

illegality: Opioids, cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines are called Schedule 1 of the Canadian Control Drugs & Substances act - You can go to jail for possessing or using drugs (even if it’s first time) Potential future policies - Toughen up punishments - Making some drugs that are currently legal - illegal - New Zealand will outlaw cigarettes under age of 20 by 2028 - Keep things as they are now - Reduce/decrease punishment for consumption - But not for distribution Decriminalize consumption - Remove sanctions under the criminal law and moving towards treating drugs as a public health issue - BC’s model - In principle, drugs are still illegal - No one goes to jail for consuming drugs but you face consequences for distribution - Legalize Removing all the legal prohibitions on drugs, including on producing and selling - All drugs - Both consumption and distribution are permitted

Answer 60

Ray (1983): Any substance that alters (normal) interior structures or functions in a living organism - Under this definition we would consider cold showers, perfume... all as drugs → not precise enough - A substance consumed for medical or recreational needs - This could be fruit, orange, chocolate → not precise enough - Dictionary.com: A habit-forming medicinal or illicit substance, especially a narcotic - Could be alcohol, nicotine ...

Answer 61

Any substance that has been defined by certain segments of society as a drug - The only thing that all drugs have in common that distinguishes them from a non-drug is that someone labelled it a drug - Which drugs are considered deviant, also depends on social norms - In India, consuming alcohol is illegal - But have having hash is often encouraged

Answer 62

- When certain substances, which we have named drugs, are used for non-medical purposes - - Also a problematic definition - Most of us don’t consider drinking coffee in the morning to be drug abuse - We tend to think about drugs as illegal but most of the drugs we use around the world are fully legal - - Many are consumed for purposes of improving our health - We are a chemical using civilization - We use drugs for pain for everyday life - Health is not the absence of illness; we consume lotions, vitamins, teas, vaccines and other products that promise longevity, good performance, good health - Drugs are actually very common and normal part of our daily lives - Millions of drugs are sold for cosmetics, hormones, hair - Legal drugs: Caffeine, nicotine, alcohol

Answer 63

Marxist: The drugs that increase productivity are legal - Dangerous ones are illegal Pharmaceutical qualities? - There’s no single quality that all illegal drugs have, and all legal drugs do not, and vice versa Damage to health? - Illegal drugs are dangerous to you Data: Before the recent spike in overdose due to fentanyl, 5-6 years ago, more than 1⁄2 of deaths in the US were from abusing the prescription drug and overdosing - - There’s a good argument that alcohol causes the most problems than any other drug (DUI)

Answer 64

- Drugs make you a criminal - Claim: Illegal drugs are most associated with criminal activities - Well actually, it is true but only if we include trafficking, selling, and possession of drugs If we focus on use of drugs, does that increase crime? - There is minimal evidence for direct relationship between illegal drugs and committing violent crimes - Drug abuse could lead to poverty which leads to increased crime - But there’s controversial evidence about the direct effects of drug abuse and criminality - Alcohol is responsible for more interpersonal violence and associated with more criminal acts than any other drugs combined - In US, half the people arrested for violent crimes, have been drinking Research tells us that top 5 most addictive drugs: nicotine, caffeine, opioids, cocaine, and alcohol - Many argue that nicotine is at the top

Answer 65

Most the distinction between legal/illegal has to do with socio-historical reasons Alcohol - In Canada, alcohol is consumed the most in Quebec - Rate is stable except for teenagers (15-20) where you see a decline in the last decade Why is alcohol legal? - It causes psychological, physiological, and social issues - Although it’s highly associated with violence, accidents, and health problems, it doesn’t mean it’s a direct cause of these problems - Drinking in small amounts is fine - Our behaviour, is largely affected by social and cultural expectations, even more than the physiological effects of the drug on our body - This is why, some societies consume very large amounts of alcohol and their behaviours are moderately affected - In Nigeria, they respect the ability to appear sober, despite heavy drinking - - In some cultures, it’s okay to become very happy/euphoric but any sexual/aggressive behaviors are not acceptable so you see much less of it - In our society, how you behave following alcohol consumption really changes depending where you are - Drunken behaviors are learned behaviors and they’re very sensitive to cultural context

Answer 66

- Import, export, selling, consuming alcohol was illegal in US between 1920-1933 - And for shorter periods in Canada in the 20’s - Prohibition was largely promoted by religion and movements that were a “moral” way of life - - Prohibition was a complete failure - Illegal alcohol selling flourished - Criminal organizations got rich - Tens of thousands of clubs were still selling alcohol - Public opinion shifted rapidly and people were against prohibition - In 30’s, alcohol became legal again, despite all the damage it causes The campaign for prohibition was against immigrants who disrupt/corrupt the US - Right-wing groups played a big role like KKK - Immigrants consuming alcohol were seen as criminals

Answer 67

- Includes opium, heroine, morphine, fentanyl - Some are more potent - Fentanyl is 50x more potent than heroin - Morphine is more used in medical settings - 1 shot thing - You take the drug once and you’re addicted - It’s true that these drugs are very addictive, psychologically and physiologically, but almost never with one time use - Varies for different users - Some get addicted much faster - Prevalence: About 10% “ever tried”, around 10% are regular users - Unlike what we see in the movies, most of the people who try opioids once do not become addicts - Many people have a drug habit without losing control - Some people lose control - Opiates are one of the most harmful drugs that causes damage - Very dangerous; regular users die - Groups most likely to use - Younger people - Males - People living in urban settings - Minority groups - In Canada; Indigenous people - People in the medical profession - About 5% of physicians are regular users of narcotics - What are the physical effects of opioid use? - Relaxing, euphoric, warm/fuzzy, pain relief, sleepy

Answer 68

- Fentanyl crisis in North America - Around 3-5,000 overdoses 10 years ago to now over 100,000 overdoses in US today - May be worse in US than Canada because no health insurance in US and need to relieve pain - Synthetic opioids are more potent (Fentanyl is 50x more potent than heroin - more addictive and will more likely lead to overdose) - Cheaper to produce - To make effects last longer of fentanyl, suppliers start cutting it with other drugs - Most common is cut with benzodiazepines Horrific health effects even without overdose - Loss of limbs - “Zombie” drug - Hundreds of websites legally sell chemicals from which you can make fentanyl and benzo and xylazine - Relatively easy to purchase

Answer 69

- Used for more than 5,000 years, mostly, for medical purposes 19th century: Opium wars the combination is even more dangerous Early 20th century: Anti-opioid crusades - In the 20th century, different groups started a crusade against opium

Answer 70

1. Economic interests - Moral panic over Asian immigration in Canada - fear and opium coming to NA in large amounts with immigrants - Objection to East Asian immigrants coming to Canada - 1908 - The government of Canada adopts the opium act; criminalizing the use and sale of opium “TheBlackCandle” (JudgeEmilyMurphy) - She writes a book where she warns about the dangers of drugs - When you read the book you get that; the perception of drug addiction is a problem which is influenced by racism - She would see too many Chinese people in her courtroom - Was concerned with the sexual exploitation of drunk white girls by Chinese men - Similar to others, they used these racist arguments to argue for legislation against drug use Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 gave police unlimited power - whenever there was suspicion that there could be drugs - No warrant needed Bureaucratic mechanisms (James Giffen) - -He wrote a book - Says legislation continues to expand because it’s in the best interest of bureaucratic and officials - Justifies more spending on the problem and expansion of bureaucratic mechanisms What are the results of this criminalization? - Trading opium went overwhelming into the hands of professional lawbreakers: The Mafia - Created huge problems in trafficking and selling - Just like the prohibition of alcohol in the 20’s

Answer 71

- Cocaine was used by people who were well off because manufacturing cocaine is expensive Early 1900s: First criminalization - At this time, there was manufactured moral panic about black people - Story: Black people use cocaine, get violent, and commit crimes - This legislation was relatively mild 1960’s and 1970’s: Reduced punishments for stimulants in the US - Heavier sanctions were placed on depressants including opioids - Use of cocaine was illegal but not severely punished - Around 1980 cocaine became much cheaper and more available when crack became a thing - Crack is much cheaper to produce - Cocaine also became cheaper - Cocaine became a drug used by lower classes - Specifically, minority groups - This is where the war on drugs began 1980’s: The introduction of Crack and the “War on Drugs” - American prisons got flooded with urban blacks - Explosion of inmates and building of new prisons - Didn’t help at all in reducing the number of users

Answer 72

Marijuana remains to be illegal in many places - Use of marijuana causes way less health and social damage than alcohol/nicotine and other legal drugs - Prevalence: About 45% of Americans and Canadians have tried a product of Cannabis - High rates of regular users (25%)

Answer 73

- This seems to be supported by the fact that many heavy drug users report that at some point in their lives, they used marijuana - including alcohol and nicotine etc. - Most marijuana users do not progress to cocaine or heroin -

Answer 74

- Criminalization of marijuana is tied to power relations in fear of ethnic and immigrant groups 1920: Moral panic: Mexican immigrants and Marijuana (William Randolph Hearst) - - Williams was billionaire who did a campaign - He wanted to rename it with spanish j in the middle to emphasize the cultural connection - Marihuana ⇒ Marijuana - In 1930’s, newspapers in US published hundreds of articles detailing the horrors of marijuana - “The green monster of destruction” - “Leads to violence/madness” - By mid 30, marijuana was illegal in the US and Canada Starting in the 1960’s: Usage grows rapidly - Was around 15% then but by the beginning of the 80’s: 1⁄3 of Americans had tried the drug - The fact that certain drugs are illegal has nothing to do with the qualities, it has to do with historical development, power relations, racism, anti-immigration, and class

Answer 75

- Up until 1883, Hemp (from marijuana) was one of largest growing fields - Most textiles were made from hemp - Cannot get high from industrial hemp - Articles depicted blacks and mexicans as devils smoking marijuana and playing music - They realized it doesn’t actually make you violent, it does the opposite - So they outlawed it for the opposite reasons that they used in the first place - BC Mayor: “Prohibition has never worked” - Prohibition does not stop people from using - Whether the drug is criminalized or decriminalized - does not affect the rates of consumption - Prohibition strengthens organized crime

Answer 76

- They suffocated the monkeys and deprived them of oxygen and associated it with cannabis use - Studies have shown no signs of brain cell damage - In 2005, a study said marijuana can stimulate brain cell growth - This study did not nearly get as much attention - Another spoof: Cannabis causes lung cancer - Elements in tobacco smoke do cause cancer but not marijuana - It’s impossible that marijuana is worse than tobacco

Answer 77

Decriminalization: Removing sanctions under the criminal law and moving toward treating drugs as a public health issue Legalization: Removing all the legal prohibitions on drugs, including on producing and selling

Answer 78

- Marijuana should be legal everywhere but too much isn’t good - Even for junk foods and snacks, having a lot of it is bad - Obesity causes more health problems than marijuana - No one talks about making junk food illegal What about hard drugs? - Most support decriminalization - Argument objecting to legalization: If we’re saying something is legal - normalization - what message is that sending? - Right now, drugs are criminalized - how well does it work? - As we saw in the documentary, criminalization is a failure - Studies show that harsher punishments on drugs do not reduce the rate of drug users, including with hard drugs

Answer 79

- Rates of imprisonment for drug use tripled since the ’80s - US has 5% of the world's population and 25% of its prisoners - - Argument Michelle book; US criminal justice system used war on drugs to enforce traditional and new systems of minority aggression - 1⁄3 of all black men today will spend time in jail during their lives - Mostly for drug offences - Michelle makes argument that it’s a new way of social control - It enforced racial segregation and brings it back to how it was before 1964 (civil rights act) - Implication? - Once you’re incarcerated, you lose your voting rights for life - 5 million in US are prevented from voting because they are felons - How can those who were in jail reintegrate into society and find a job? - There are also other consequences for the war on drugs - Drug users face a harsh stigma - Harder to reintegrate into society - So much money spent on police force, prisons War on Drugs results - Did not reduce number of drug users - Resulted in organized crime flourishing

Answer 80

Take all the resources, add taxation on drugs, and invest the money in educating people about the social/health costs of using drugs - Improve services for those who have drug problems - Work to reduce poverty and discrimination which are highly associated with drug use - It would be a wiser investment of our money than punishing these people and sending them to jail - In the Netherlands, they decriminalized marijuana in 1976 and it did not lead to increased drug use - Uruguay legalized marijuana - In Portugal, 2001, all drugs were decriminalized - The result: less drug abuse, fewer drug related deaths, more people seeking help, drop in HIV infections - Legalizing something doesn’t mean we have to endorse it or recommend it - Example: Cigarettes - They’re legal - In last decade, there’s a huge campaign against it - Has been successful in younger people - Smoking rates continue to drop - We use unrealistic scare tactics: Use ecstasy once and you’ll be a junkie in the street - Wouldn’t it be better to have a more realistic education about the real harms of drug use and how to minimize harm - There’s also the argument about public health and how to improve it

Answer 81

- Legalization can reduce health risks - There are advantages to legalization - Because many of the health risks from drugs result from the fact they are illegal - User cannot know the quality or quantity of materials in the substances - People overdose by accident - We have evidence from Switzerland; that addicts can start to get out of addiction with such programs that supervise drug use - You need social housing, mental treatment, and help finding a job, it’s all very expensive - If drugs are legal and supervised, that could improve control of substance use - Legalization can reduce drug-related criminality and harm' - Prices of drugs would be substantially reduced or provided free of charge under supervision instead of trafficked by criminal organizations - Many people who die - don’t actually die from drug use, they die from drug wars or police interventions - In places like Mexico and Columbia, and other developing countries, we see drug cartels that run the countries and create social problems