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Genetics Ni Ma'am R > MIDTERM LECTURE > Flashcards

MIDTERM LECTURE Flashcards

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1
Q

 Studied inheritance of traits using pea plants
 Develop the laws of inheritance
 Between 1856-1863, Mendel experimented
28,000 pea plants.
 He found that plants’ offspring retained traits of the parents.

A

Gregor Mendel

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2
Q

Mendel stated that physical traits are inherited
as

A

Particles

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3
Q

two forms of a gene (dominant &
recessive)

A

Alleles

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4
Q

stronger of two genes expressed in
the hybrid; represented by a capital letter (R)

A

Dominant

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5
Q

gene that shows up less often in a
cross; represented by a lowercase letter

A

Recessive

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6
Q
  • gene combination for a trait
A

Genotype

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7
Q
  • the physical feature resulting from
    a genotype.
A

Phenotype

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8
Q

gene combination involving 2 dominant or 2 recessive genes

A

Homozygous genotype

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9
Q
  • gene combination of one dominant & one recessive allele (e.g. Rr); also called hybrid
A

Heterozygous genotype

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10
Q

what are the eight pea plant traits

A

seed shape, seed color, seed texture, pod shape, pod color, flower color, flower position, stem length

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11
Q

the parental generation in a breeding experiment

A

Parental P1 Generation

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12
Q

the first-generation offspring
in a breeding experiment

A

F1 generation

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13
Q

the second-generation offspring in a breeding experiment

A

F2 Generation

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14
Q

cross involving a single trait

A

Monohybrid cross

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15
Q

cross involving two traits. eg. flower color & plant height

A

Dihybrid cross

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16
Q

In a cross of parents that are pure for contrasting traits, only one form of the trait will appear in the next

A

Law of Dominance

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17
Q

During the formation of gametes (eggs or
sperm), the two alleles responsible for a trait
separate from each other.
 Alleles for a trait are then “recombined” at
fertilization, producing the genotype for the
traits of the offspring

A

Law of Segregation

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18
Q

Alleles for different traits are distributed to
sex cells (& offspring) independently of one
another.
 This law can be illustrated using dihybrid
crosses

A

Law of Independent Assortment

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19
Q

A breeding experiment that tracks the
inheritance of two traits

A

Dihybrid cross

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20
Q

 punnett square has 64 boxes… demonstrating that Mendel’s principles apply to the inheritance of multiple traits
 The basic concepts are the same as with mono-or dihybrid crosses
 each gamete must have ONECOPYOFEACHGENE
 random segregation and independent
assortment still apply

A

Trihybrid Cross

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21
Q

Breaks down multi-hybrid crosses into a series of monohybrid crosses
 Combine the individual ratios (multiply)to get the final ratio.
 Can find genotypic ratios

A

Forked-line Method

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22
Q

contain the genetic material that is transmitted from parent to offspring and from cell to cell.

A

Chromosome

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23
Q

one of the two members of each pair segregates into one daughter nucleus, and the homolog segregates into the other daughter nucleus. Gametes contain one set of chromosomes—they are haploid.

A

Meiosis

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24
Q
  • determining the type of inheritance pattern that a gene follows.
    – provide important clues concerning the pattern of inheritance of traits within human families.
A

Pedigree Analysis

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25
Q

________ is at the top of the
pedigree and the most recent generation is at ________.

A

Oldest, Bottom

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26
Q

In humans, disorders or traits caused by a single gene are called

A

Mendelian traits

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27
Q

Is the Likelihood That an Out come Will Occur

A

Probability

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28
Q

number of times an outcome will occur/ total number of possible outcomes

A

Probability

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29
Q

The deviation between the observed and expected outcomes is called

A

Random Sampling Error

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30
Q

states that the probability that two or more independent events will occur together is the product of their individual probabilities

A

Multiplication rule

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31
Q

states that the probability that
any one of two or more mutually exclusive
events will occur is calculated by adding
together their individual probabilities

A

Addition Rule

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32
Q

equation represents all of the possibilities for a given set of two unordered events.

A

Binomial Expansion Equation

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33
Q

Used to Test the Validity of a Genetic Hypothesis

A

Chi-square test

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34
Q

when it assumes there is no real difference between the observed and expected values.

A

Null hypothesis

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35
Q

one that the experimenter has failed to realize, may also be consistent with the data

A

Alternative hypothesis

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36
Q

The Cross: A true-breeding fly with straight wings and a gray body (c+c+e+e+) is a cross to a true-breeding fly with curved wings and an ebony body(ccee). The flies of the F1 generation are then allowed to mate with each other to produce an F2 generation

The Outcome:
F1 generation: All offspring have straight wings and gray bodies
F2 generation: 193 straight wings, graybodies 69 straight wings, ebony bodies 64 curved wings, gray bodies 26 curved wings, ebony bodies
Total: 352

A

With df = 3, the chi square value of 1.06 we obtained is slightly greater than1.005, which gives a P value of 0.80, or 80%.
 To reject the null hypothesis at the5%significance level, the chi square would have to be greater than 7.815.  Because it is actually far less than this value, we accept that the hypothesis is correct

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37
Q

Two pea plants are heterozygous for three genes (Tt Rr Yy), where T = tall, t = dwarf, R= round seeds, r= wrinkled seeds, Y =yellow seeds, and y = green seeds. If these plants are crossed with each other, what
are the predicted phenotypes of the offspring, and what fraction of the offspring will occur in each category?

A

Pakisagot

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38
Q

refers to inheritance
patterns that obey two laws:
A. The law of Segregation
B. Law of Independent Assortment

A

Mendelian Inheritance

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39
Q

observed ratios in the offspring clearly obey Mendel’s laws.

A

Simple Mendelian Inheritance

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40
Q

This pattern involves the inheritance of genes that are located on the X-chromosome. In mammals and fruit flies, males have a single copy of X-linked genes, whereas females have two copies

A

X-linked

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41
Q

This pattern refers to the effect of sex on the individual’s phenotype. Some alleles are recessive in one sex and dominant in the opposite sex.

A

Sex-influenced Inheritance

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42
Q

In this pattern, a trait occurs in only one of the two sexes. An example is breast development in mammals.

A

Sex-limited inheritance

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43
Q

prevalent alleles in a natural population.

A

Wild type

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44
Q

phenomenon in large population when more than one wildtype allele occur.

A

Genetic Polymorphism

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45
Q

altered pre-existing alleles cause by random mutation that occurs in the population

A

Mutant Alleles

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46
Q

mutant alleles aren’t often defective in their ability to express a functional protein. TRUE OR FALSE?

A

FALSE

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47
Q
  • change the gene or the protein encoded by a gene so that it gains a new or abnormal function.
A

Gain-of-function mutations

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48
Q

change a protein such that the mutant protein acts antagonistically to the normal protein.

A

Dominant-negative mutations

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49
Q
  • dominant mutant allele is a loss of-function allele.
A

Haploinsufficiency

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50
Q

used to describe patterns of inheritance in which a heterozygote (with one functional allele and one inactive allele) exhibits an abnormal or disease phenotype

A

Haploinsufficiency

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51
Q

is a situation in which an allele that
is expected to cause a particular phenotype does not.

A

incomplete penetrance

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52
Q

degree to which trait is expressed.

A

Expressivity

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53
Q

refers to the effects of
environmental variation on a phenotype

A

norm of reaction

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54
Q

condition in which the phenotype of a
heterozygote is intermediate between the
corresponding homozygous individuals.

A

Incomplete Dominance

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55
Q

is the interaction between genes that are alleles and result in the heterozygous individuals being superior to either of the homozygous parents.

A

Overdominance

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56
Q

occurs when both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote.

A

Codominance

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57
Q

A black chicken and a white chicken are crossed. Show the punnet square. What is the probability that they will have erminette chicks?

A

100%

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58
Q

may exist in a population level, and different individuals in the population may have different pairs of these alleles.

A

Multiple Alleles

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59
Q

displays both co-dominance and complete dominance.

A

Blood type

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60
Q

can either have a carbohydrate on their surface or not.

A

Red Blood Cells

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61
Q

If a woman with AB blood has children with a man who has type O, what will be the possible genotypes of their children? What will be their blood type?

A

PAKISAGOT

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62
Q

Genes for some traits are found on the

A

Chromosomes

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63
Q

They do not show the trait, but carry a gene for
the trait

A

Carriers

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64
Q

If a woman with normal vision has children with a man who is colorblind, what are the chances that their children will be colorblind? Will any children be carriers of the trait?

A

ANSWER PLEASE

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65
Q

If an allele makes one of these genes
nonfunctional, or causes it to take on an
abnormal, harmful activity, it may be
impossible to get a living organism with a
homozygous genotype.

A

Lethal Genes

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66
Q

occurs when the expression of a single gene has two or more phenotypic effects

A

Pleiotropy

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67
Q

The multiple effects of a single gene on the phenotype of an organism is called

A

Pleiotropy

68
Q

Phenomenon that describes how
the allelic variants of two different genes affect a single trait.
 can exhibit epistasis and complementation.

A

Gene Interactions

69
Q

the interaction between genes is antagonistic, such that one gene masks or interferes with the expression of another.
 The alleles that are being masked or silenced are said to be hypostatic to the epistatic alleles that are doing the masking.
 The expression of one gene is dependent on the function of a gene that precedes or follows it in the pathway.

A

Epistasis

70
Q

It is a simple or dominant
epistasis whenever a dominant allele conceals the expression of both recessive and dominant alleles at other loci.

A

Dominant Epistasis

71
Q

What are 5 types of Epistasis

A

Dominant, Recessive, Dominant Inhibitory, Duplicate Recessive, Duplicate Dominant

72
Q

when the recessive allele conceals the expressing.

A

Recessive Epistasis

73
Q

when genes conceal other
genes by suppression

A

Dominant Inhibitory

74
Q

There is a recessive allele concealing the expression of dominant alleles at two loci

A

Duplicate Recessive

75
Q

there is a dominant allele concealing the expression of recessive alleles at two loci.

A

Duplicate Dominant

76
Q

In human families it is often observed that certain characteristics may “skip” a generation,
then reappear. How would you explain this in the light of the facts expounded by Mendel?

A

ANSWER

77
Q

In Holstein cattle the spotting of the coat is due to a recessive gene while a solid–coloured
coat is dominant. What types of offspring might be produced by a cross between two
spotted animals? Show how you reach your conclusion. The gene P is responsible for coat
pattern.

A

PAKISAGOT

78
Q

In cats the gene for short hair is dominant over the gene for long hair (angora). A short–
haired tom is mated with an Angora female. She bears eight kittens, six short–haired and
two with long hair. How do these numbers compare with the expected ratio? If you mated
these same cats four more times and obtained a total of forty offspring, would you expect
the results to be a closed approximation of the expected ratios? Explain.

A

Walang titingin sa sagot

79
Q

The hornless condition in cattle is dominant over horned. A cattleman has a herd of
hornless cattle only, but some horned cattle occasionally appear. These are removed from
the range before they can reproduce. Assuming that this man has good fences which can
keep out stray bulls, how could this be explained?

A

ANSWER

80
Q

In summer squash, white coloured fruit is dominant over yellow. If you place pollen from a yellow–fruited plant on the pistil of a hybrid white–fruited ( heterozygous ) plant, what type of seeds would you expect from the seed which come from this cross?

A

SAGOT

81
Q

An albino man marries a normally–pigmented woman who had an albino mother. Show the
types of children that this couple may have and the proportions of each. ( Albino is
recessive; normal is dominant ).

A

Walang mandadaya

82
Q

In Drosophila, vestigial wings and ebony colour are due to two separate recessive genes.
The dominant alleles are normal (long) wings and normal (gray) body colour. What type of
offspring would you expect from a cross between a bomozygous vestigial ebony female and a normal double homozygous (long–winged, gray–bodied) male? If the F1 are allowed to breed among themselves what types of offspring would you expect in the F2? Show complete genotype and phenotype of both generations.

A

Practice to

83
Q

About 70% of Americans get a bitter taste from a chemical called phenyl thiocarbamide
(PTC); the others do not. The ability to taste this chemical results from a dominant gene
while taste–blindness is recessive. A normally pigmented woman who is non–taster has a
father who is an albino–taster. She marries an albino man who is a taster, but who has a
mother who is non–taster. Show the types of children which this couple may have.

A

SAGOT

84
Q

In mice, the gene C for coloured fur is dominant over its allele c for white. The gene V
for normal behaviour is dominant over v that for waltzing. Give the probable genotypes of
the parent mice (each was mated repeatedly) that produced the following offspring:
a. coloured–normal mated with white–normal, produced 29 coloured–normal and 10
coloured–waltzers;
b. coloured–normal mated with coloured–normal, produced 38 coloured–normal, 15
coloured–waltzers, 11 white–normal and 4 white–waltzers;
c. coloured–normal mated with white–waltzer , produced 8 coloured–normal, 7 coloured–
waltzers, 9 white–normal and 6 white–waltzers.

A

ANSWER

85
Q

A colour blind man marries a woman with normal vision. Her mother was colour blind.
What kind of children would you expect from this marriage?

A

SAGOT

86
Q

Suppose a young lady comes to you for advice in your capacity as a marriage counselor.
She tells you her brother has hemophilia, but both of her parents are normal. She wishes
to marry a man who has no history of hemophilia in his family. She would like to know
the probability of having hemophilic offspring. Explain.

A

EXPLAIN

87
Q

Two drosophila are crossed and yield 82 females and 38 males. Such a great deviation
from the expected 1:1 ratio could hardly be due to chance. Suggest an alternate
explanation. Think on this one.

A

ANSWER

88
Q

A woman bears a child with erythroblastosis at her second delivery. She has never had a
blood transfusion. On the basis of this data, classify the woman, her husband and both
children as to Rh type.

A

WHY

89
Q

A woman is Rh positive and both of her parents are Rh positive. She marries an Rh
negative man. Is there any chance that they may have any Rh negative children? Explain.

A

PAKISAGOT

90
Q

Can a child having blood type A be born to parents having types AB and B respectively?
Explain.

A

PAKISAGOT

91
Q
  • study of Heredity and Variation of
    Inherited Characters
  • science of genes, heredity, and
    variation in living organisms
  • Study of the way animals and
    plants pass traits on their offspring
  • study of how traits are passed from
    parent to offspring
A

Genetics

92
Q

The tendency offspring to resembles their parents

A

Heredity

93
Q

The tendency of offspring to vary from their
parents.

A

Variation

94
Q

segment of DNA
that determines a trait.

A

Gene

95
Q

Who coined the word “gene”?

A

Wilhelm Johannsen

96
Q

What are the branches of Genetics

A
  • Classical Genetics
  • Molecular Genetics
  • Population Genetics
  • Quantitative Genetics
97
Q
  • Transmission of traits form
    generation to generation.
  • Governed by Mendel’s Laws
  • Study of physical traits as a
    stand-in or the gene that
    control appearance, or
    phenotype
A

Classical Genetics

98
Q
  • Chemistry of Genes
  • Investigate the structure
    and functions of genes at
    molecular level
  • Investigate the physical
    and chemical structure
    DNA
  • Genetic code
A

Molecular Genetics

99
Q
  • Use of mendelian genetics
    to examine inheritance
    patterns of individuals in a
    population.
  • understand how the
    collective genetic diversity of
    a population influences the
    health of individuals within
    the population.
A

Population Genetics

100
Q
  • Measuring the strength of heredity.
  • examines traits that vary in really
    subtle ways
  • relate those traits to the underlying
    genetics of organisms.
  • estimate how much variation in a
    particular trait is due to the
    environment and how much is
    actually genetic.
A

Quantitative Genetics

101
Q

Application of Genetics

A
  • Forensics
  • Common ancestry
  • Prediction of Disease
  • Development of treatments
  • Family Planning/Genetic Counseling
  • Agriculture
  • Biotechnology
  • Crop and Animal Breeding
  • Genetically Modified Organisms
  • Ecology
102
Q

✓ small, membrane-enclosed units
✓ Filled with aqueous solution of chemicals
✓ Ability to multiply or divide
✓ Fundamental unit of life

A

Cell

103
Q

Who proposed cell theory?

A

Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann

104
Q

who said that all cells arise from pre-existing cell

A

Rudolf Virchow

105
Q

in a nucleoid or nucleus

A

genetic material

106
Q

a semifluid matrix

A

cytoplasm

107
Q

a phospholipid bilayer

A

plasma membrane

108
Q

are required to visualize
cells.

A

microscope

109
Q

can resolve structures that are 200nm apart.

A

Light microscope

110
Q

can resolve structures that are 0.2nm apart.

A

Electron microscope

111
Q

two basic types of cells

A

Prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell

112
Q
  • Region of cytoplasm where
    prokaryote’s genome/ DNA
    is located.
  • Usually a singular, circular
    chromosome.
A

Nucleoid

113
Q
  • Small extra piece of
    chromosome/genetic material.
  • 5 - 100 genes
A

Plasmid

114
Q
  • Also known as proto-plasm.
  • Gel-like matrix of water,
    enzymes, nutrients, wastes, and
    gases and
    contains cell structures.
  • Location of growth,
    metabolism, and replication.
A

Cytoplasm

115
Q
  • Bacteria’s way of storing
    nutrients.
  • Staining of some granules aids
    in identification.
A

Granules

116
Q

✓is thought to be a
feature only of eukaryotes.
✓ is a major advancement in the
study of prokaryotes.

A

Cytoskeleton

117
Q

✓Separates the cell
from its environment.
✓Phospholipid bilayer
✓hydrophilic – water
loving
✓hydrophobic –water
fearing
✓Membrane is semi-
permeable.

A

Plasma membrane

118
Q

Long, thin extensions

A

Flagella

119
Q

Wind around bacteria,
causing movement in waves.

A

Axial filament

120
Q

short, fine
appendages around the cell.
✓No role in motility

A

Fimbriae

121
Q

tubes that are longer
than fimbriae but shorter than
flagella.

A

Pili

122
Q
  • are not made of cells
  • need a host cell to reproduce
  • very small compared to a cell.
  • Like cells, viruses contain nucleic acids
A

Virus

123
Q

✓has a nucleus
✓can be single or multicellular
✓have many organelles, performing
complex functions
✓specialized to perform specific functions
✓larger than prokaryotic cells
✓Animals, plants, fungi and protists are
made of eukaryotic cells

A

Eukaryotes

124
Q
  • Nickname: “The
    Control Center”
  • Function: holds the
    DNA
A

Nucleus

125
Q

Consists of:
✓Cytosol – liquid portion
✓Organelles – specialized
cellular compartments
✓Inclusions – chemical
substances
✓Glycogen (muscle & liver
cells)
✓Lipid droplets (fat cells)
✓Melanin granules (skin & hair
cells)

A

Cytoplasm

126
Q

Nickname:
“The Powerhouse”
✓Function: Energy formation
✓Breaks down food to make
ATP
✓ATP: is the major fuel for all cell
activities that require energy

A

Mitochondria

127
Q
  • Function: makes
    proteins
  • Found in all cells,
    prokaryotic and
    eukaryotic
  • dense particles
    of rRNA and
    protein
A

Ribosomes

128
Q

synthesize proteins that
function within the cell

A

Free ribosomes

129
Q

synthesize proteins
incorporated into cell membranes

A

Attached ribosomes

130
Q

thick rods
composed of tubulin.

A

Microtubules

131
Q

thin filaments composed of
actin

A

Microfilaments

132
Q

tough protein fibers

A

Intermediate filaments

133
Q

fingerlike
projections of the plasma
membrane;
✓increase surface area for
absorption

A

Microvilli

134
Q

short hair-like
projections;
✓propel substances over
surface of cell

A

Cilia

135
Q

long hair-like
projections; propel the cell

A

Flagella

136
Q

Nickname: “Roads”
Function: The internal delivery system of the cell

A

Endoplasmic Reticulum

137
Q

Nickname: The shippers
Function: packages, modifies, and
transports materials to different
location inside/outside of the cell
Appearance: stack of pancakes

A

Golgi Apparatus

138
Q

circular (but bigger than ribosomes)
✓ Nickname: “Clean-up Crews”
✓Function: to break down food into particles the rest of
the cell can use and to destroy old cells.

A

Lysosomes

139
Q

✓ membranous sacs of oxidase & catalase
enzymes;
✓ detoxify alcohol & neutralize dangerous
free radicals.

A

Peroxisomes

140
Q

✓Have a cell wall and cell membranes
✓Have a large vacuole unlike the animal cell
which only has small vacuoles
✓Have mitochondria to convert sugar to usable
energy for the cell
✓Have a few lysosomes
✓Are more rectangular in shape
✓Have chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis
✓Make sugar to store solar energy

A

Plant Cells

141
Q

✓Function: stores water
✓This is what makes lettuce crisp
✓When there is no water, the plant wilts

A

Vacuoles

142
Q

✓Function: traps energy from the sun to produce food for the plant cell
✓Green in color because of chlorophyll, which is a green pigment

A

Chloroplast

143
Q

✓Function: provides
support and
protection to the
cell membrane
✓Found outside the
cell membrane in
plant cells

A

Cell wall

144
Q

✓Can not make their own food
✓Have many lysosomes
✓Are more round shaped
✓Have centrioles
✓Use mitochondria to release energy
✓Have many Golgi bodies
✓Have more extensive cytoskeleton than plant
cells

A

Animal cells

145
Q
  • The Cell grows,
  • Organelles Double
  • Nucleus splitting
A

Interphase

146
Q

is when organelles double.
Remember each new cell needs a complete set of organelles.

A

G1

147
Q

when DNA is replicated.
Each cell needs a complete and identical set of DNA

A

S

148
Q

Proteins needed for Mitosis are produced.

A

G2

149
Q
  • chromosomes condense
  • spindle fibers form (spindle fibers
    are specialized microtubules
  • radiating out from centrioles)
    • chromosomes are
      captured by spindle
A

Prophase

150
Q
  • chromosomes align along
    equator of the cell, with one
    kinetochore facing each pole.
A

Metaphase

151
Q
  • sister chromatids separate
  • spindle fibers attached to
    kinetochores shorten and
    pull chromatids towards the
    poles.
  • free spindle fibers lengthen
    and push poles of cell apart
A

Anaphase

152
Q
  • spindle fibers disintegrate
  • nuclear envelopes form around both groups of chromosomes
    *chromosomes revert to their extended state
  • cytokinesis occurs, enclosing each daughter nucleus into a separate
    cell
A

Telophase

153
Q

undergo
cytokinesis through the
formation of a cleavage
furrow.

A

Animal cells

154
Q

A ring of microtubules
contract, pinching the cell
in half.

A

Cytokinesis

155
Q

undergo cytokinesis
by forming a cell plate between
the two daughter nuclei.

A

Plant cells

156
Q

2 types of body cells

A

somatic cells and sex cells

157
Q

A single germ cell divides into four unique daughter cells.
- Daughter cells have half the # of chromosomes as parent cell,
so they considered haploid.

A

Meiosis

158
Q

Refers to the number of sets of
chromosomes in cells.

A

Ploidy

159
Q

one copy of each chromosome
– designated as “n”, the number of
chromosomes in one “set”
- gametes

A

Haploid

160
Q

two sets of chromosomes
- two of each chromosome
– designated as “2n”
- somatic cells

A

Diploid

161
Q

Are paired chromosomes with genes for the same
trait arranged in the same order.

A

Homologous chromosomes

162
Q

Stages of Prophase

A

Leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis

163
Q

all maternally and paternally derived chromosomes have
found their homologous partner.
* The homologous pairs then undergo synapsis, a process by which
the synaptonemal complex (a proteinaceous structure) aligns
corresponding regions of genetic information on maternally and
paternally derived non-sister chromatids of homologous
chromosome pairs.

A

Zygotene

164
Q

stage where genetic exchange between the non-sister
chromatids of the synaptonemal complex happens in an event known
as crossing-over or genetic recombination.

A

Pachytene

165
Q

crossing over is completed homologous
chromosomes retain a full set of genetic information; however,
the homologous chromosomes are now of mixed maternal and paternal
descent. Visible junctions called chiasmata hold the homologous
chromosomes together..

A

Diplotene

Genetics Ni Ma'am R (2 decks)

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