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a&p > Midterm "hints" Deck > Flashcards

Midterm "hints" Deck Flashcards

1
Q

4 Tissues of the Human Body

A

Epithelial Tissue,
Connective Tissue,
Muscular Tissue and
Nervous Tissue

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2
Q

4 Tissues of the Human Body
- FUNCTIONS

A

Epithelial Tissue - Covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs & cavities, forms glands.

Connective Tissue - Connects, supports & protects. Delivers blood via vessels.

Muscular Tissue - Contracts to generates heat & move body parts.

Nervous Tissue - Carries info via nerve impulses from one body part to another.

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3
Q

What is the Cardiovascular System composed of?

A

Made up of the blood, the blood vessels and the heart.

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4
Q

What are the functions of the Cardiovascular System?

A

Heart pumps blood through blood vessels.
This blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells of the body, and carbon dioxide and other wastes away from cells on Red Blood Cell’s.
This system also helps regulate acid/base balances and temperature and water content of body fluids. Some blood components like White Blood Cell’s help fight against disease and also help repair damaged blood vessels.

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5
Q

Fluids of the eyeball

A

Fluid in the eyeball is called aqueous humor & vitruous body.

(Aqueous Humor is between the Cornea and Lens whereas Vitruous Body is behind the Lens in the eyeball itself)

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6
Q

What is an Atom?

A

Basic chemical unit, made up of protons, neutrons and electrons.

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7
Q

What is a molecule?

A

A group of atoms bonded together, sharing electrons (eg/ O2, or H20)

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8
Q

What are Cations?

A

Cations are positively charged ions, because they have given away electrons (giving away some of their negativity).
These ions have more protons (in the nucleus) than electrons in the shell, therefore it is more positive.

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9
Q

What is the Octet Rule?

A

Octet Rule:
First shell - 2 electrons to fill it
Second shell - requires 8 electrons to fill it
Third shell - requires 8 electrons to fill it
And on and on and on

If the shell is full it is a stable atom. If the second shell had 6 electrons, this atom would try to steal 2 electrons from a neighbouring atom or it would give up its 6 electrons. The shell is unstable, until it can fill its outermost shell.

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10
Q

What is an electrolyte?

A

An ion that breaks apart into its negative and positive ions in solution.

Can conduct electricity, eg/ NaCl dissolves in water and becomes Na+ and Cl-.

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11
Q

What are the different types of Chemical Reactions?

A
  • Synthesis
  • Decomposition
  • Exchange
  • Reversible
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12
Q

What are Aerobic Reactions

A

Reactions that require Oxygen.

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13
Q

What is Catabolic Reaction?

A

Breaking down larger, more complex molecules into smaller, less complex ones.

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14
Q

What is an Anabolic Reaction?

A

Building up of larger more complex molecules from smaller, simpler ones.

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15
Q

How many cells in the human body?

A

Around 30 trillion.
Total of over 200 cell Types

(Lect 1. study guide notes 220
whereas Lect. 3 says total of over 200 cells)

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16
Q

What is the cytoplasm comprised of?

A

Everything inside the cell EXCEPT nucleus and plasma membrane.

Cytosol
Cytoskeleton
Organelles

Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments, Microtubules, and Organelles - Centrosome, Centrioles, Pericentriolar Matrix, Cilia,
Fagella, Ribosomes

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17
Q

What is a Synovial Membrane?

A

Lines body cavity that does not open to external, has parietal and visceral layer.

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18
Q

What is a Synovial Membrane?

A

Lines cavities of freely moving joints.

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19
Q

What is a Cutaneous membrane?

A

Covers entire body surface, epidermis and dermis.

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20
Q

What is a Mucous Membrane?

A

Lines body cavities that open to external environment - digestive tract, tight junctions

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21
Q

What is Non-Permeable vs Permeable?

A

Non-permeable - Does not allow substances to pass through.

Permeable - Allows substances to pass through.

Semi-permeable - Allows certain substances to pass through
depending on conditions.

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22
Q

What are the Plasma Membrane Proteins?

A

Integral Proteins - Firmly embedded in the plasma membrane.

Transmembrane Proteins - Crosses the entire membrane.

Peripheral Proteins - On one side of the membrane, often attached to the polar heads.

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23
Q

What are the Functions of Plasma Membrane Proteins?

A

Form ion channels - forms a water filled pore or opening so a specific ion can flow through it and across the membrane.

Act as carriers - attaches to a specific substance and changes shape and carries it across, also called transporters.

Act as a receptor - this protein molecule is stimulated by another chemical substance (called a ligand) that alters the cells function in some way.

Act as enzymes - this type of protein catalyzes a reaction in or outside the cell to affect a change.

Linkers - anchors filaments to provide structural stability and shape to the cell, may attach to another cell or move the cell.

Cell identity markers - this protein has a marker on it that distinguishes your own cells from other potential foreign invader cells.

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24
Q

What are Transmembrane Proteins useful for?

A

Crossing the entire membrane

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25
Q

Characteristics of Organic Molecule Cells

A

Large and complex, contain carbon.

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26
Q

What is an inorganic molecule cell?

A

Simple, no carbon - water, salt, acids, bases.

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27
Q

What is Endocytosis

A

Bringing substances inside a cell

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28
Q

What are the 3 Endocytosis processes?

A

Receptor Mediated

Phagocytosis (Cell Eating)

Bulk Phase Endocytosis

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29
Q

What is Exocytosis?

A

Removing substances from the cell (often waste products)

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30
Q

How does the process of Exocytosis take place?

A

Uses membrane enclosed vesicles inside the cell that migrate to the plasma membrane and fuse to it, where they release their contents into extracellular fluids

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31
Q

What is Transcription?

A

In the nucleus, a copy is made of the sequence of amino acids that make up the DNA from an RNA molecule, all of these reactions are catalyzed by an enzyme called RNA polymerase.

mRNA-messenger RNA, directs the synthesis of new proteins
rRNA-ribosomal RNA, joins the proteins to make ribosomes
tRNA-transfer RNA, binds to amino acids on a ribosome

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32
Q

What is Translation?

A

In the cytoplasm, RNA translates the copy back into a DNA.

  1. Small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA (template for copying)
  2. Large ribosomal subunit binds to tRNA
  3. tRNA starts the copying and the two subunits join together
  4. Each protein is produced from individual amino acids and joined with peptide bond
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33
Q

What are Telomeres?

A

They are found at the tips of each chromosome, acting to protect the chromosomes.

34
Q

What happens with Telomeres as we age?

A

Telomeres, found at the tips of each chromosome (protects the chromosomes) shorten each time they divide, eventually disappearing altogether.

So the cell can not further divide, that cell dies forever. Telomeres determine how long we live. People with a lot of stress have already shortened telomeres.

35
Q

Where would you find a Myocyte?

A

Within Muscular Tissue.

36
Q

What is Apoptosis?

A

This is the normal lifespan
of a cell.

The cell ends its life as planned, on an internal clock.

37
Q

What is Mitosis?

A

Is when any cell in the body except reproductive cells (germ cells), produces identical copies of the original cell with 46 chromosomes (called diploid), replaces dead or dying cells and is especially active during growth and repair.

38
Q

What are the phases of Mitosis?

A
  1. Interphase - DNA is replicated in this phase only, not organelles or cytoplasm.
  2. Mitotic phase - Nucleus and cytoplasm divide.
    Mitosis - Nucleus divides
    Prophase
    Metaphase
    Anaphase
    Telophase
    Cytokinesis - Cytoplasm and everything else in the cell divides
39
Q

What are the 5 types of Intercellular Junctions?

A
  1. Tight junctions
  2. Adherens junctions
  3. Desmosomes
  4. Hemidesmosome
  5. Gap junctions
40
Q

What are the functions of each type of junction?

A
  1. Tight junctions - Transmembrane proteins make a leak proof seal, provides a barrier, (eg/ Stomach, bladder)
  2. Adherens junctions - Adhesion belt, uses Cadherins to connect via plaques (eg/ intestines)
  3. Desmosomes - Transmembrane proteins make “spot welds”, also use Cadherins, connect to intermediate filaments (made of keratin) that connect to intracellular plaques that connect to other cells, provide strength and structural stability
  4. Hemidesmosome -Transmembrane proteins make “1/2 welds”, join cells to basement membrane, uses integrin & laminin
  5. Gap junctions - Protein pores or connexins form fluid filled tunnels, passing ions between cells, for communication between cells also as a protective mechanism to close off tunnels to unwanted bacteria, cancer cells etc. (eg/ muscle and nerve cells)
41
Q

What is the function of GAP JUNCTIONS?

A

passing ions between cells, for communication between cells, also as a protective mechanism to close off tunnels to unwanted bacteria, cancer cells etc. (eg/ muscle and nerve cells)

42
Q

What is Epithelial Tissue?

A

Lines surfaces, forms protective barriers, secretes mucus, hormones and other

43
Q

What are the 2 types of Epithelial Tissue?

A

Endothelium - Lines the entire circulatory system.

Mesothelium - Lines body cavities.

44
Q

Define a simple squamous epithelium

A

Single layer, flat, lies on the basement membrane.

eg/ air sacs in lungs, blood vessel linings, heart, lymphatic vessels, also present in all capillaries.

45
Q

What are Neuroglia Cells?

A

Specialized Nervous Tissue cell that acts for support and maintenance of nerve impulses

46
Q

What is Muscular Tissue comprised of?

A

Made of elongated muscle cells called “myocytes” and use ATP to generate muscle contractions, producing movements, maintaining posture and generating heat.

47
Q

How does Epithelial Tissue repair?

A

Continuous capacity to regenerate

48
Q

How does Nervous Tissue respond to damage?

A

Does not regenerate at all

49
Q

How does Muscular Tissue respond to damage?

A

Does not regenerate well

50
Q

Does Connective Tissue have the ability for repair?

A

Most has continuous capacity to regenerate, except cartilage and tendons.

51
Q

How scars form - How they close, Specific type of tissue.

A

Inflammatory phase - Blood clot forms - Loosely connects at edges of the wound - A vascular & cellular response helps eliminates microbes - Foreign materials and debris via phagocytes.

Migratory phase - Clot becomes a scab - Epithelial cells bridge the wound - Fibroblasts migrate on fibrin threads to produce the scab - Damaged blood vessels begin to grow - Granulation tissue fills wound.

Proliferative phase - Extensive growth of epithelial cells - Deposits of fibroblasts & collagen.

Maturation phase - Scab sloughs off once the epidermis is the right thickness - Collagen fibres become more organized.

52
Q

What are the 2 types of Scar Tissue?

A

Fibrosis - ConnectiveTissue scar tissue

Granulation Tissue - ConnectiveTissue scar tissue when damage is extensive

53
Q

What are the cells that are known as the “Clean Up Crew” in the body?

A

Phagocytes are the cell that is the “Clean Up Crew” in the body.

54
Q

Order of layers in epidermis - Deepest to superficial

A

Stratum Basale - If this layer is injured, need skin graft or skin transplant.

Stratum Spinosum - Provide strength and flexibility to skin.

Stratum Granulosum - contain lamellar granules that produce a water repellent sealant.

Stratum Lucidum - Lots of keratin, add toughness to the skin (present only in thick skin).

Stratum Corneum - Dead keratinocytes - Cells are continuously shed and replaced by cells moving up from below - Callus’ are a form of abnormal thickening of Stratum Corneum.

55
Q

3 layers of skin - Superficial vs Deep Skin

A

Epidermis - Resists damage and provides protection to underlying tissue, made of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and 4 distinct cells - KERATINOCYTES, MELANOCYTES, MACROPHAGES, TACTILE EPITHELIAL CELLS
Keratinocytes : 90% of all skin cells - produce keratin
Melanocytes: 8% of all skin cells - produce melanin
Macrophages: provide immune response that protects us from microbes entering
the skin
Tactile epithelial cells: least numerous - detect touch sensations

Dermis - Provides temperature stability and also prevents dehydration - Made of dense irregular connective tissue that contains collagen and elastic
fibres, also contains blood vessels, nerves, glands, hair follicles, few cells
here: Fibroblasts (make extracellular matrix & collagen, critical in wound
healing), Macrophages (phagocytes, clean up crew), Adipocytes (stores fat), 2 layers - Papillary (form fingerprints), Reticular.

Hypodermis / Subcutaneous - Anchors the skin to underlying tissues and organs, stores fat as adipose tissue and insulates the body.

56
Q

Functions of integumentary system

A

Thermoregulation - Increases body sweat and circulation of blood to cool
down or decrease circulation and activate muscles to heat up

Blood reservoir - Dermis hold 8-10% of body’s total blood flow

Protection - Keratin protects underlying tissues, prevent dehydration, sebum moisturize skin, macrophages alert immune system to keep bacteria out, melanin shields skin from UV damage

Cutaneous sensations - Tactile sensations like touch, pressure, vibration, tickle, temperature.
- SUPERFICIALLY: Tactile (merkel) discs, Meissner corpuscles
- DEEP: Pacinian Corpuscles

Excretion & absorption - excretes small amounts of salts, CO2, ammonia,
absorbs vit A,D,E,K
- Synthesis of vitamin D - vitamin D needs to be activated by UV light rays
- Emotional expression - red face, expressing anger or embarrassment

57
Q

Type 1, 2 and 3 Burns

A

1st Degree - Affects EPIDERMIS
2nd Degree - EPIDERMIS & DERMIS
3rd Degree - EPIDERMIS, DERMIS, SUBCUTANEOUS

58
Q

What will happen when there is a lot of Melanin in the skin?

A

Darker Skin

59
Q

What is the absence of Melanin known as?

A

Albino

60
Q

Muscle that attaches to the hair?

A

Arrector Pili

61
Q

What are the different types of Exocrine Glands?

A

Sebaceous = Oil

Sudoriferous = Sweat - 2 types Eccrine & Apocrine

Ceruminous = Wax & Produce cerumen

Mammary = Produce milk

62
Q

What is the difference between Exocrine and Endocrine Glands?

A

Exocrine Glands = Secrete hormones into ducts

Merocrine - No damage to cell
Aprocrine - Partial damage to cell
Holocrine - Total damage, cell dies

Endocrine Glands - Secrete hormones into bloodstream

63
Q

Fingernail growth happens where?

A

In the nail matrix
Cells divide mitotically here
Region of nail growth
1mm per week

64
Q

Ends of bones is called?

A

Epiphysis - at each end of bone.

65
Q

What is the Diaphysis?

A

The centre of shaft of a bone.

66
Q

What makes up the Extracellular Matrix

A

In cells: Protein fibres and ground substance.

In bone: 15% water, 30% collagen fibres, 55% crystallized mineral salts.

67
Q

Arteries in bone entrances/exits which area?

A

Blood vessels called Periosteal Arteries and nerves enter the bone
through the periosteum via Volkman’s or Perforating Canals.

Large nutrient artery enters the bone through a hole in the diaphysis
called the Nutrient foramen and then divides.

The metaphysis and epiphysis both have their own artery branches:
The Metaphyseal Artery and The Epiphyseal Artery.

68
Q

Compact vs Spongy Bone - Where are they found?

A

Compact Bone is found on the outside of the bone - Composed of
Osteons or Haversian systems, contain Lamellae, Lacunae, Osteocytes, Canaliculi, & Central canals.

Spongy Bone is found on the inside of the bone - NO Osteons

69
Q

Where growth in length and thickness of bones occurs.

A

During infancy, childhood, adolescence the bones are growing in length and thickness

Growth in length involves:
- Interstitial growth of cartilage on epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal
plate and replacement of cartilage on diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate
- Epiphyseal plate is a layer of hyaline cartilage in the METAPHYSIS of
growing bone

70
Q

4 layers of cartilage within the Metaphysis of a growing bone.

A

Zone of Resting Cartilage

Zone of Proliferating Cartilage

Zone of Hypertrophic Cartilage

Zone of Calcified Cartilage

71
Q

What is Endochondral Ossification?

A

Endochondral (produces Cartilage)

6 steps: Making Bone from Cartilage

  • Development of a cartilage model
  • Growth of the cartilage model
  • Primary ossification center develops
  • Medullary cavity develops
  • Secondary ossification centers. develop
  • Articular cartilage formed
72
Q

What is Intramembranous Ossification?

A

Intramembranous (produces Spongy Bone)

4 steps: Making Bone from Scratch

  • Ossification Center develops
  • Calcification occurs
  • Formation of trabeculae
  • Periosteum develops
73
Q

Hormones Responsible for Growth

A

Human growth hormone - Promote growth everywhere

Insulin growth factors - Promotes cell division and growth

Thyroid - Promotes growth

Parathyroid hormone - Slows down bone resorption

Sex hormones - Slows down bone resorption

Calcitonin - Inhibit bone resorption

74
Q

What is a Simple Squamous Cell?

A

One layer thick, thin, flat, tile shaped cell.

Lies on the basement membrane.

eg/ air sacs in lungs, blood vessel linings, heart, lymphatic vessels, also present in all capillaries.

75
Q

What is the specific fracture from Punching?

A

5th Metacarpal

76
Q

What can increase bone mineral density?

A

Regular weight bearing exercise, weight training.

77
Q

What are the 2 main Epithelilal Membranes and what do they line?

A

Endothelium - Lines entire circulatory system - Simple squamous cells

Mesothelium - Lines body cavities - Simple squamous, found in serous
membranes like Pericardium, Pleura, Peritoneum

78
Q

Repairing tissue and repairing homeostasis - The cell that
mostly involved.

A

Basal cells

Plasma membrane repair - A cellular response mediating active
resealing of membrane disruptions to maintain homeostasis and
prevent cell death and progression of disease.

79
Q

What are the 11 cells we have covered?

A

Stem, Bone, Blood, Muscle (myocyte), Fat, Skin, Nerve, Endothelial, Sex, Pancreatic, Cancer

80
Q

What is decomposition?

A

The breaking down of one large molecule into two smaller ones.

81
Q

What is Phagocytosis?

A

“Cell eating”

We have two cells that are capable of phagocytosis:
MACROPHAGES & NEUTROPHILS

82
Q

Where is the Metaphysis?

A

Region between Diaphysis and Epiphysis - Epiphyseal Plate is
here.

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