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GEOLOGY 101 MIDTERM > MIDTERM HIGHLIGHTS > Flashcards

MIDTERM HIGHLIGHTS Flashcards

1
Q

ENDOGENIC

A

Geological processes that
originate inside of the earth’s crust.

(volcanism, plate tectonics, earthquakes, etc.)

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2
Q

EXOGENIC

A

Geomorphic processes that
originate at or near the earth’s surface.

(Mass wasting, weathering, erosion and deposition of
materials by fluvial, glacial, coastal, aeolian
processes)

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3
Q

THE TAGEDY OF THE COMMONS

A

Overconsumption of a shared resource (the Commons) results from individuals acting in
their own best interest.

Benefits go to the individual, but costs go the community

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4
Q

THE FIVE MINERALS THAT MAKE UP GRANITE

A
  1. QUARTZ
  2. ORTHOCLASE
  3. PLAGIOCLASE
  4. AMPHIBOLE
  5. MICA (BIOTITE, MUSCOVITE
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5
Q

FELSIC:

A

Feldspar + Silica

Light Colored

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6
Q

MAFIC:

A

Magnesium + Ferric (Iron)

Dark Colored.

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7
Q

PYROCLASTICS

A

a dense, fast-moving flow of solidified lava pieces, volcanic ash, and hot gases.

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8
Q

Intrusive (Plutonic) Igneous Rocks

A

Intruded by depth, exposed by erosion.

Magma cools slowly = large crystals.

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9
Q

Extrusive/Volcanic Igneous Rock

A

Extruded lava at surface and pyroclastic.

Lava cools rapidly = fine-grained crystals

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10
Q

SILLS & DYKES

A

Sills and dykes are formed when magma intrudes into rock.

Sills form where magma intrudes between layers, they run parallel to the layer.

Dykes form when magma intrudes into a rock along lines of weakness such as fractures and fissures.

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11
Q

PAHOEHOE

A

Is lava that in solidified form is characterized by a smooth, billowy, or ropy surface

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12
Q

AA

A

Is lava that has a rough, jagged, & spiny surface.

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13
Q

SILICA CONTENT

A

Controls how explosive a volcanic eruption will be.

The more silica, the greater the viscosity

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14
Q

SHIELD VOLCANO

A

Largest volcanoes. Formed from basalt. Gentle slope (5o - 12o).

Lava flows quickly and over great distances. Lava rivers and lava tubes common.

Some damage to infrastructure, not usually associated with loss of life.

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15
Q

CINDER CONE VOLCANO

A

A small volcano cone built of dry pyroclastic material of various size.

Smaller in size and shorter life span.

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16
Q

CALDERA VOLCANO

A

Volcanic eruption causes collapse of the cone into the magma chamber below and
collapse of a stratovolcano.

Calderas are some of the largest features (20 to 40 kms wide) and form from the most
violent and infrequent eruptions (10,000 yr frequency).

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17
Q

FLOOD BASALT

A

Very high volume eruptions of fluid (low viscosity) lava that floods large areas.

Repeated effusions from fissures produce layers of basaltic lavas to form lava plateaus.

Fed from mantle plumes.

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18
Q

STRATOVOLCANO OR COMPOSTITE VOLCANO

A

Intermediate in size. Variable slope angles.
Volcanoes of the “Ring of Fire” (i.e. subduction zones ) are composites. Most commonly
made of andesitic lava.

These volcanoes reflect alternating compositions of magma and the highly variable deposits that result.

Deposits can alternate between lava flows and tephra deposits.

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19
Q

LAHAR

A

volcanic debris flows or mudflows (slurry of water and mud) resulting from rapid
melting of snow or glaciers near the summit.

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20
Q

LITHIFICATION

A

COMPACTION & CEMENTATION

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21
Q

STRATIFICATION

A

the layering that occurs in most sedimentary rocks and in those igneous rocks formed at the Earth’s surface, as from lava flows and volcanic deposits

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22
Q

RIPPLE MARKS

A

– Structures formed by wind or water
– Sediments accumulate downslope (lee side)

– Symmetrical ripples
* Bidirectional current

– Asymmetrical ripples
* Unidirectional current

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23
Q

TILTED DEPOSITS

A

May have once been horizontal but then deformed or uplifted.

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24
Q

CROSS-BEDDING

A

Sediments deposited on an angle.

Tends to happen in places with flowing water or blowing wind in one direction.

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25
Q

SALTATION

A

Sand particles jumping along the surface - moving higher and higher upon the dune until it reaches maximum steepness.

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26
Q

GRADED BED

A

Sediment consisting of mixed grain-sizes is sorted as
coarser grains settle more rapidly than finer ones
Grading upward from coarser to finer

(“fining-upward”)

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27
Q

AMBER PRESERVATION

A

Fossilized tree resin.

To keep soft tissues preserved, they must be kept away from oxygen.

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28
Q

COPROLITE

A

Fossilized feces.

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29
Q

BIO MARKER

A

Organism not preserved

Chemical residue of decay

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30
Q

TRACE FOSSILS

A

Tracks / trails/burrows

Provide behavioral
information about extinct
animals

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31
Q

CARBONIZATION

A

Processes of concentration of
residue carbon on the surface
of impression.

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32
Q

HYDROCARBONS (3):

A
  1. PETROLEUM
  2. NATURAL GAS
  3. COAL
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33
Q

PETROLEUM:

A

Petroleum (“rock oil”) is a naturally occurring,
complex mixture of hydrocarbons and includes:
– Crude oil (liquid)
– Bitumen (solid or very viscous liquid)

A fossil fuel formed from decomposition of organic chemicals (e.g. fatty molecules called lipids) derived mostly from plankton (marine algae and microorganisms) that are buried in sedimentary rock and subjected to heat and pressure.

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34
Q

NATURAL GAS

A

Natural gas is a naturally occurring, mixture of
hydrocarbon gases consisting mostly of methane

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35
Q

COAL

A

Sedimentary rock formed from the decomposition
of plant life and composed of organic grains.

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36
Q

MOST OIL OR GAS DERIVES FROM A…

A

“SOURCE ROCK” rich in organic matter, then migrates to a porous sedimentary rock with a natural trap, which forms a petroleum reservoir.

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37
Q

CONVENTIONAL OIL

A

Crude oil that flows naturally and can
be pumped to surface without being
heated or diluted.

Natural gas layers provide pressure on
the oil, causing it to flow when a well
is initially drilled.

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38
Q

UNCONVENTIONAL OIL

A

Crude oil that does not flow naturally
or cannot be pumped to surface
without heating or dilution.

Includes bitumen and heavy oil that is
thick and viscous.

Unconventional natural gas found in
tight shale (shale gas) and coal beds

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39
Q

ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (METHODS)

A

Techniques used to lower the viscosity of crude oil so that more can be extracted from an existing oil field:

  1. gas injection (CO2)
  2. thermal injection
  3. steam flooding
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40
Q

GEOLOGICAL CO2 SEQUESTRATION

A

CO2 injected into a reservoir can rejuvenate depleted
reservoirs while storing (permanently) the CO2.

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41
Q

BITUMEN

A

Bitumen is a heavy oil that is a solid at 10C and
viscous like molasses at room temperature

Challenge to extract bitumen and to separate it
from the sand and water

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42
Q

OPEN-PIT MINING

A

Open pit mining used for deposits
within 70 m of the surface

– Tailings ponds allow solids to settle
and for water on top to be recycled

– Tailings ponds are of particular
environmental concern

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43
Q

STEAM-ASSISTED GRAVITY DRAINAGE (SAGD)

A

Step 1: Two horizontal wells are drilled – a
steam injection well over a recovery well

Step 2: Steam injected into the top well
lowers the viscosity of the oil and allows
it to drain downward to the recovery well

Step 3: oil then pumped to surface

Used to extract heavy oil in
Saskatchewan and Alberta

Also used in the Alberta oil sands

Water and energy intensive

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44
Q

CYCLICAL STEAM STIMULATION (CSS)

A

“Huff and Puff” method

Individual well undergoes three
separate phases

Stage 1 is a steam injection phase

Stage 2 is a soak phase that allows
enough time for the oil to lower in
viscosity

Stage 3 is the production stage when
the heated oil is pumped to surface

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45
Q

POROSITY

A

Is the volume of pore spaces in a given volume of rock, sediment or soil material.

Expressed in %.

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46
Q

PERMEABILITY

A

A measure of the rate at which soil or rock transmits a fluid such as water through its pores or cracks.

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47
Q

HYDRAULIC FRACKING

A

Technique used to fracture low permeability reservoirs

Fluid (water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or propane) injected down the well until pressure exceeds the rock strength

Fracking fluid has silica sand or ceramic beads (“proppant”) that keep the fractures open

Segments along the borehole can be fractured one at a time in a process known as multi-stage fracking

48
Q

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS WITH HYDRAULIC FRACKING

A

Air pollution from methane release

Requires a lot of water (recycled)

Chemicals in the fluids can leak into other formations

Pressurizing of a reservoir can induce seismicity

49
Q

NUEE ARDENTE (GLOWING CLOUD)

A

Gas cloud of great heat, tremendous turbulence, and great force associated with these flows.

50
Q

VOLCANIC HAZARDS

A
  1. LAVA FLOWS
  2. POISONOUS GASSES
  3. ASH
  4. PYROCLASTIC FLOW
  5. NUEE ARDENTE
  6. LAHAR
  7. TSUNAMI
51
Q

GASSES RELEASED BY VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS:

A

– Water vapor (H2O)
– Carbon dioxide (CO2)
– Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
– Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
– Hydrogen chloride (HCl)

52
Q

TWO TYPES OF ISOTOPES:

A
  1. RADIOACTIVE
  2. STABLE (NON-RADIOACTIVE)
53
Q

RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE

A

Nuclei that decay at a constant rate to form other isotopes (daughter isotopes);

by measuring the amount of decay such isotopes have undergone while present in the rocks, geologists can date those rocks;

54
Q

TYPES OF FRACTURES

A
  1. Conchoidal
  2. Parallel
  3. Irregular
  4. Splintery
55
Q

CRYSTAL LATICE

A

The 3-D molecular structure of a mineral;

its configuration reflects relative sizes and
numbers of ions that make up the mineral;

56
Q

CHARACTERISTICS OF A MINERAL

A
  1. naturally occurring
  2. inorganic
  3. solid
  4. characteristic crystalline structure
  5. definite chemical composition
57
Q

CARRYING CAPACITY

A

Maximum population of a species that can
be supported by an ecosystem without
environmental degradation.

58
Q

ATMOSPHERE

A

the gaseous envelope that encircles,
shields & insulates the earth.

59
Q

HYDROSPHERE

A

Includes all water on the earth,
including oceans, lakes, rivers, ice,
atmospheric & soil water.

60
Q

LITHOSPHERE

A

Solid portion of the Earth from the
interior to the crust, composed of rock,
unconsolidated materials, minerals, some
include soils.

61
Q

BIOSPHERE

A

All living and dead organic materials,
plants, animals, and soils.

62
Q

EXTRATERRESTRIAL

A

includes energy from the sun,
meteors, space dust, long-wave radiation
from earth to space.

63
Q

TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

A

a two-dimensional representation of the shape and elevation of the land surface by means of contour lines.

64
Q

CONTOUR LINE

A

a line on a map connecting points of equal elevation.

65
Q

VECTOR DATA

A

Points, lines, polygons

  • Useful for representing discrete features
  • Land parcels, pipelines, buildings
66
Q

RASTER DATA

A

Regular grid of cells

  • Useful for representing continuous features
  • Air-photos, satellite images, DEMs
67
Q

FOLIATED

A

Directed pressure causes parallel alignment of mineral, textural, and structural features of a
metamorphic rock that can overprint the original texture.

68
Q

NON-FOLIATED

A

Non-foliated rocks occur when the pressure is low or NOT a factor (contact metamorphism) or
the composition of the rock does NOT include platy minerals such as mica.

69
Q

CONTACT METAMORPHISM

A

Igneous intrusion “bakes” surrounding rocks

70
Q

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM

A

Temperatures and directed pressure

71
Q

BURIAL METAMORPHISM

A

Temperatures without directed pressure

72
Q

HYDROTHERMAL METAMORPHISM

A

Results from percolation of hot watery fluids

73
Q

CATACLASTIC METAMORPHISM

A

Directed pressure (shear) grinds rock at low temperature along faults/shear zones

74
Q

INDEX MINERALS

A

Minerals which only form at the temperatures and pressures associated with the process of metamorphism (a more stable form under conditions of high temp and pressure).

75
Q

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCHIST AND GNEISS

A

SCHIST is characterized by coarse grained foliation and/or lineation, tendency to split along planes, with Mica crystals large enough to be easily identified with the unaided eye.

GNEISS is a medium to coarse-grained, irregularly banded rock (lighter and darker) with little tendency to split.

76
Q

DYNAMIC METAMORPHISM

A

Metamorphism from high-pressure, low -temperature, shear zones

Restricted to narrow shear zones (fault zone).

77
Q

CATACLASTIC

A

Rock formed by fracturing and mechanical grinding along a fault.

78
Q

MYLONITES

A

Formed by ductile deformation in fault zones. They are formed by dislocation/diffusion creep (plastic) rather than mechanical abrasion (brittle).

79
Q

“PLASTIC”

A

A permanent deformation or change in shape of a solid body without fracture under the action of a sustained force.

80
Q

“BRITTLE”

A

Rocks fail as rigid solids. The rocks will break, rather than bend, under these conditions to produce fractures.

Brittle deformation occurs along discrete planes in the rock instead of involving the rock body as a whole.

81
Q

FORCE

A

“Any influence that causes a free
body to undergo an acceleration.” (push or pull)

Recall Newton’s Second Law: F=ma

82
Q

SHEAR

A

The plates slide past one another

83
Q

STRESS

A

Force applied per area.

– Compressive
– Tensional
– Shear

84
Q

THREE TYPES OF STRESS

A
  1. Compressive
  2. Tensional
  3. Shear
85
Q

STRAIN

A

Deformation of a material as a result of
applied stress

(elastic, ductile, brittle fracture)

86
Q

TYPES OF STRAIN

A
  1. Elastic
  2. Ductile
  3. Brittle
  4. Fracture
87
Q

ANTICLINES

A

Anticlines are the upfolded parts of the rock layers.

88
Q

OVERTURNED FOLDS

A

Overturned folds have an inclined axial plane and both limbs dip in the same direction.

89
Q

RECUMBENT FOLDS

A

Recumbent folds have a horizontal axial plane

90
Q

SYNCLINES

A

Synclines are the downfolded parts of the rock layers.

91
Q

DOMES (FOLDS)

A

Anticlinal upwarped strata with oldest rocks in the centre

92
Q

BASINS (FOLDS)

A

Synclinal depression with youngest
rocks in the centre

93
Q

TWO TYPES OF FRACTURES

A
  1. JOINTS: are fractures along which there
    has been no movement.
  2. FAULTS: are fractures along which there
    has been movement.
94
Q

HANGING WALL / FOOTWALL

A

HANGING WALL is the wall directly above the fault line.

FOOTWALL is the wall directly below the fault line.

95
Q

THREE TYPES OF FAULTS

A
  1. Normal: tensional, hanging wall drops
  2. Reverse (thrust): compressional, hanging wall rises
  3. Strike-slip (transform): shear, lateral displacement
96
Q

EARTHQUAKE

A

The vibration generated by the sudden release of energy associated with rapid movement of rock along a fault.

97
Q

FAULT PLANE

A

The fracture surface between one block and another along which movement occurs.

98
Q

EPICENTER

A

A location on the earth’s surface directly above the focus.

99
Q

FOCUS

A

The ‘origin’ of the earthquake, that point within the earth’s crust where movement first occurred.

100
Q

SEISMIC WAVES

A

Waves of energy that travel like shock waves from the focus to the surrounding area.

101
Q

TWO TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

A
  1. Body waves: travel through the interior
    * P-waves: primary, “push-pull” waves
    * S-waves: secondary, “shake” waves
  2. Surface waves: travel along the surface. Referred
    to as L-waves or long waves due to longer period.
    * Love-waves
    * Rayleigh waves
102
Q

P-WAVES (PRIMARY)

A
  • Fastest waves (first to arrive)
  • “push-pull” waves
  • Compression and expansion
  • Change in volume not shape
  • Travel through all materials
103
Q

S-WAVES

A
  • Slower than P-waves (Second to arrive)
  • “shake” waves
  • Side-to-side
  • Change in shape not volume
  • Fluids do not transmit S-waves
104
Q

Seismic waves are detected by an instrument
called…

A

A seismometer and recorded as a paper
trace known as a seismogram

105
Q

SEISMOGRAM

A
  • P-waves arrive first followed by the arrival of S-waves
  • Note time interval between P- and S- waves
  • Surfaces waves arrive last
106
Q

Using the P- and S-wave interval to determine the distance to the epicenter from
at least…

A

THREE stations allows us to triangulate the location of the earthquake.

107
Q

TWO APPROACHES FOR ASSESSING THE “SIZE” OF AN EARTHQUAKE

A
  1. INTESNITY
  2. MAGNITUDE
108
Q

MOMENT MAGNITUDE

A

Scale matches the antiquated Richter scale for small magnitude earthquakes and extends the scale to better represent larger earthquakes.

1) THE MOUNT OF GROUND SHAKING 10X

2) EQUATES TO THE EMOUNT OF ENERGY RELEASED 32X

109
Q

EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

A
  1. Ground Shaking
  2. Fault Displacement
  3. Landslides
  4. Liquefaction
  5. Tsunami
110
Q

CRUST

A
  • Oceanic crust = thinner and denser
  • Continental crust = thicker, less dense
111
Q

MANTLE

A

– Fe and Mg silicates

– Plastic behavior

112
Q

CORE

A

– outer core = iron-rich liquid

– inner core = solid iron.

113
Q

LITHOSPHERE

A

– Crust plus uppermost mantle (differ in density but firmly attached)

– Rigid and brittle behavior

114
Q

ASTHENOSPHERE

A

– Below the lithosphere (still belongs to upper part of the mantle)

– Low-velocity seismic waves indicate partially molten rock

– Plastic behavior

115
Q

OCEANIC CRUST

A

Oceanic crust is about 5-8 km thick,

– Composed primarily of basalts and gabbros.
– Average density 3 g/cm3
– Rocks approx 180 million yrs old or less.

116
Q

CONTINENTAL CRUST

A

Continental crust is about 20-70 km thick (40-45 km thick average),

– Composed of a mixture of rock types. Granitic.
– Less dense 2.7 g/cm3
– Rocks are older (4 billion yrs old - Acasta gneiss in the NWT.)

GEOLOGY 101 MIDTERM (2 decks)

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