Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Positivist Theories > Midterm Exam 2 > Flashcards

Midterm Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is Crime According to Functionalism?

A
  • Crime is seen as a problem of adaptation
  • Normal response to abnormal circumstances
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

How do functionalist view society?

A
  • Functionalist view society as a whole- interrelated
  • Functional contributions of all its parts
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

The functionalist approach focuses on?

A
  • How society contributes to crime and how the system in place regulate crime
  • How does society generate crime
  • How the CJS is a reaction of crime
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What are the four functional perquisites for social system maintenance?

A
  • Adaption
  • Integration
  • Goal attainment
  • Pattern maintenance
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are Social Boundaries?

A

Boundaries provide stability and expectations for the dependency of people

  • Give an indication of what does not fit, what is excluded
  • By focusing on different affiliations, there is a lot of distinction that is being made. The idea of difference, helps to define the expectations
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What is the role of maintaining social boundaries?

A

Defining a range of activity,

Pattern of constancy and stability

Reference point for people

Dependency

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Emile Durkheim

A

Key theorists of Functionalism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What does Durkheim say crime is?

A

Necessary and Useful

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is the purpose of Deviance according to functionalism?

A

Negative feedback

  • Help society secure lawful boundaries
  • Negative reactions can serve as reminders for the need of social and legal parameters
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Functionalist view society as..

A

Goal directed system that essentially guides people’s behaviour
- Assumed consensus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Functionalism view deviance as

A
  • Unique
  • Functional because of positive consequences of bringing people together and strengthening bonds. By focusing on what we should not be doing, we work towards what we need to be doing

Necessary because it serves a reminder of what is within the boundary

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What is a determining condition?

A

crime is universal, extremely influential of expectations and parameters of the society

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What are the 5 functions of deviance?

A
  • Boundary Setting function
  • Group Solidarity
  • Innovation Function
  • Tension Reduction Function
  • Latent Function
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Boundary Setting Function

A

Moral boundaries, boundaries teach us the moral boundaries of what should be considered right and wrong. Having sanctioning a person for their behaviour, it sends the message to others to not be “this person

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Group Solidarity

A

Brings society together against a common enemy.

Deviance may help to increase solidarity against certain members that are threatening, trespassers, etc.

Notion of community, anything perceived as a threat is met with resistance.

Dichotomy of “us versus them” tend to inform different basis and exclusion- that may lead to discrimination

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Innovation

A

Allows critically and empathetically that society may have rigid boundaries for society to overcome, prevents society to changing or progressive ideas.

Deviance helps us to lead to social change.

Encourages society to change its regulations and rules.

Example: Rosa Park

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Tension Reduction function

A
  • Recognized as a safety valve for strains within society
  • Drain off the tensions within society
  • There are different ways that society would not necessarily see as functional
  • Recognize how we perceive different behaviours as deviant
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Latent function

A
  • Unintended or unrecognized contributions of deviance
  • Certain people benefit more than others
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What are the strengths of Functionalist Theory

A
  • Unique view of cause and solution
  • Innovation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What are the limitations of the functionalist theory?

A
  • Consensus based (conservative bias)
  • Overly mechanistic image of society
  • Circularity of functional analysis
  • Optimistic Bias
  • Positivist (determinism and emphasis on difference)
  • Dichotomy of “us vs them”
  • Macro level analysis (partially)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Where does functionalist theory fall on the four quadrant model?

A

This is partially macro- synchronic theory.
Macro meaning it seeks to explain crime at wider societal systems.
- Examines society as a whole; broader societal systems; explains crime at macro level but partially
-

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What is Anomie according to Durkheim?

A

Anomie is a state of breakdown or disconnect.
- Deregulation
- Normlessness (breakdown of norms)
- Absence of values leads to confusion (does not reproduce a consensus, which leads to confusion)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Durkheim was concern about the ways in which anomie may?

A

Have an impact of people’s struggle that suicide became on option for them.

Suicide for Durkheim is
- Symptom of social malady
- Sense of alienation and loneliness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Anomie

A
  • Pathological state of organic society
  • Independence of individuals but interdependence of the collective society
  • Belief that individuals are determined by pathological conditions of society itself. Thus, results in deviance, suicide, crime
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What is Inequality?

A
  • Normal and inevitable
  • Recognizing the social structure that has embedded inequalities within its social structure.
  • Inevitable is a limited degree of macro
  • Particular focus on the strains, like socioeconomic inequalities, may face certain barriers that does not allow them to participate in certain activities in legal ways that they turn to deviance in order to participate.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What is Crime to Strain Theory?

A
  • Crime is adaptation in normal response to abnormal circumstances.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Who is the key founder of structural perspectives?

A

Merton

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Strain Theorist

A
  • Strain theorists locate the “causal force” of the society to social structure.
  • Social pressures acknowledge that it is normal but rejects that there is social need for crime
  • Certain groups in society are subject to more presures than others.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

What is structural arrangement

A

Structural arrangement reflects the macro element of consideration in social structures

Daily activity is influenced by certain broader structural arrangements.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What are Merton’s 2 arguments?

A

Individuals are basically “normal” but

1) Rates of deviance are not consistent across all “classes”
2) Highest rates were consistently found in the “lower class”

Merton noticed high rates were recognized in the ways consequences in which social and economic political structures are arranged.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

What is the irony of Merton’s argument ?

A

A theory focusing on inequality but perpetuating judgement through vocabulary

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Strain

A

Relates to the gap between. cultural value goals and the access to the sociable agreed means to achieve those goals

33
Q

What does Merton reject

A

Merton rejects the notion that deviance is simply socially disapproved behaviour and considers the option of “differential opportunity.”

34
Q

What is differential opportunity?

A

understand people may develop alternative means to achieve these goals- seeking out other opportunities, Merton highlights deviance as being this behaviour.

35
Q

What is Deviance according to Merton?

A

Deviance is new pattern of behaviour (breaking traditional/ institutional patterns)

36
Q

What are the two elements of normative Order

A
  1. Cultural or Structural Order
    - Sets culturally accepted goals that motivate social behaviour

2) Instituional Means
- Made available to, and approve by, the social struture for achieving these goals

37
Q

What is Anomie according to Merton?

A

Anomie is the lack of fit between the goals and means

38
Q

What is Merton’s Explanation of crime

A
  • Social structure systematically restricts access to the approved means for a considerable part of the population, so they turn to crime to mitigate the strain
  • Assumption; Everyone has a common goal, but Merton argues that some people cannot attain that goals that creates problems of strain
39
Q

What are the 5 adaptations to anomie? (CIRRR)

A

1) Conformity
2) Innovation
3) Ritualism
4) Retreatism
5) Rebellion

40
Q

Conformity

A

Most common adaptation. Social members accept both cultural goals and cultural means (consensus) .Goals is wealth through approved middle-class values and methods

  • Society’s goals and values are internalized
  • Accept legitimized means to achieve goals
  • Poses no particular problem to society
  • Poses no particular problem to society
40
Q

Innovation

A

Most common form of deviance. Goals are accepted, but there is a lack of access to the means.
Develops new but socially unapproved means by which to achieve wealth

Found amoung “lower class”

Social structure limits access to the means an intense pressure for deviance

Does not pose a threat to the social order, they’re not challenging the goals of society, if they are engaging in risky behvaiour (these choices of society are worthwhile to achieve) but actually reinforces the capitalist order that is reflected.
- Their adaptation reinforces the cultural goals

40
Q

What is deviance for Merton vs Durkheim?

A

Durkheim innovative deviance is an outcome, result their of their actions.
vs………
Merton: innovation is more of the action itself

40
Q

Ritualism

A

Scaling down of one’s expectations of personal success

Societal expectations don’t change but how an individual engages with this expectations is of interest.

Rejects the possibility of achieving wealth

But retains loyalty to the norms of hard work, honesty

Individuals are committed to the means, the loyalty to work productivity, Individuals cannot disregard hard work because they are compelled

Individual cannot disregard the rules and develop alternative mean

Found amoung “lower middle working class”- individuals struggling with socioeconomic conditions

Achieves minimum level of success through legitimate institutionalized means

They adhere to institutionalized norms, like work routine, they are satisfied with achieving less.

This adaptation is a consequence of the high status placed on achievement; anxiety about the status to achieve produces fear

Avoid/escape potential frustrations

Poses no particular threat to social order because they are compliant with the expectations- not engaging in illegal activities

41
Q

What is an example of ritualism?

A

Ex: 9-5 factor workers; nuns (vow of poverty)

42
Q

What is an example of innovation (Merton)

A

Fraud, stealing, selling drugs

43
Q

What is an example of Conformity?

A

Education- employment- Success

44
Q

What is Retreatism

A
  • Least common adaptation

State of anomie, state of unknown, failure to meet goals generate internal conflict, frustration and defeat

The individual “drops out”

  • Struggle with the goals and the means
  • Retreatists do not contribute to the functioning of society
  • Functionalist lens as they demonstrate to others the state other people may face,
  • In society but not “of” society
  • Least common but most reviled- marginalized
  • “Us vs them” (Function)

May engage in illegal means, buying or selling drugs

45
Q

What is an example of Retreatism

A

People labeled as; drug addicts, vagrants, alcoholics, mentally ill) = leads to escape

46
Q

What is Rebellion

A

Responding to concern in society, rebels intentional opt out of society’s expected norms and seeking to replace them with new goals.

Seeks to modify the social structure

Conflict based approach of the adaptation

Replaces socially legitimized values with new ones

Adaptation to a situation in which the “institutional system” leads to barrier of success.

The rebel seeks to modify the social structure by changing both goals and acceptable means

New values may be political via violent means, spiritual means, scholarly means

Often ceases to function as a member of the larger existing social order, but doing so by choice

Alternative culture or counterculture

Only adaptation which can threaten existing social order.

47
Q

What is an example of Rebellion ?

A

Examples: Revolutionaries, cults, intellectuals, spiritual and/or political leaders

48
Q

What are the 3 solutions of Strain theory?

A

1) Re-establish the equilibrium

2) Improving access to legitimate opportunities

3) Reduce aspiration

49
Q

Solution: Re-establishing the equilibrium

A

(recognizing the barriers)- so that means

Not focusing on a macro level degree- reformist strategy and banding solution. Rather than seeking to eradicate the social system to minimizing the unknown, or anomie and reestablish social equilibrium

50
Q

Solution: Improving Access to legitimate opportunities (reform and not restructure)

A

Individual efforts to support individuals but seen as having a wider access of stimulating economic growth.

Proposes the changes the circumstances that may help people to better adapt to these systems. (partial Marco degree). Not eradicating sources but helping
- Education
- Employment Opportunities
- Economic

51
Q

Solution: Reducing Aspiration

A

Being more realist, not encouraging people to grow. Maintains and element of judgement.

52
Q

What are the strengths of Strain theories?

A
  • considering macro-level contexts of people’s experiences
  • drawing attention to socio-economic inequalities
  • focusing on conformity and deviance
53
Q

What are the limitations of Strain Theory?

A

-positivist: oversimplified class analysis;

-consensus-based: assumptions about aspirations;

-deterministic: rigid typological categories; limited view of maturity;

-partially macro: no structural changes/solutions proposed and thus
requires individual responsibility; leading to system-widening

  • Responsibility= individual to adapt to the problematic structure
  • Assumption that every shares the same aspirations

The solutions are not critical because they are helping people achieve the dream but not changing the dream itself.

54
Q

Explain these limitations

A

This is a macro limitations, bc it focuses on broader structural influences- partial degree of macro because it is consensus based and helps people to adapt these goals.

However, it is limited because it uses a down-stream approach

55
Q

What 3 theories does Subcultural theories draw on?

A
  • Social Disorganization Theory by Shaw and McKay
  • Differential Association Theory by Sutherland
  • Strain Theory by Merton
56
Q

What is the Historical Context of Subcultural Theories?

A

Neither theories (subcultural, social disorganization theory, strain theory) seems to effectively deal with many societal changes in a post-world war 2 context
- Problem is big city adolescent gangs

Rebelliousness of gang-affiliated youth was takes as a sign of fundamental challenge to the social order. Youth are identified as the target/source of these problems

Urbanization (looks like highway development, seeing developments of the suburbs, segmentations of cities that divides them. This leads to poor hydraulic balance leads to urban decay. Iin these areas youth gangs were believed to be more prevalent.

57
Q

Subcultural Perpectives

A
  • Attempt to overcome/move beyond the inadequacies. Of previous theories

Subcultural Theories
- Change of focus
- Not viewing subcultures as a social problem
- View subcultures as a solution to dilemmas

58
Q

Stanley Cohen

A

Argues that youth are casted as the folk devils, or placed into the role of folk devil.
(Folk devils are recognized that certain people or group that blamed for all that is wrong within society)

  • Ideological construct:
    Perceived embodiment of all that is wrong in society.
    Perceived carrier of all evil, immorality and social disorder.

Main Example; Subcultural Youth
Hell’s Angel
Deported Gang Members

59
Q

Albert Cohen

A
  • First attempt to recognize existence of subcultures.
  • Argues that research indicates reflect a distinct set of values that are contrary to mainstream values.

Thus, socialization to conformity to “mainstream culture” is less likely for subcultures

60
Q

What does Albert Cohen argue about youth gang delinquency?

A

Youth gang delinquency is not a rational act but as an emotional reaction.

He believed the subcultural response is fulfilling an emotional need, and youth people going into these gangs

  • Delinquent subcultures = reaction-formation
61
Q

What is reaction formation

A

Refers to the defence mechanism people used to overcome anxiety.

62
Q

What does Albert Cohen claim socialization did not prepare lower and working class young people for?

A
  • With skills for upper class settings
  • Weak hold on values of long-term individual success
  • ‘Enjoy it now’ attitude (consumption and leisure) rather than investing in long term
  • Use and value physical aggression= problem solving technique
63
Q

How the value strain of lower class youth is turned in subcultural deviance?

A
  • Through the Middle Class measuring Rod

School system is run by middle class teachers/values

Working class boys fail to adjust to middle class values.

Do not measure up to middle class expectations

= arousal disapproval, rejection and punishment which undermines their self-esteem

Frustrated and rejected youth turn to gangs for emotional solidarity

Gang involvement

Deviant careers and contact with criminal subcultures

64
Q

What is Class Analysis by Walter Miller

A

Miller rejects Albert Cohen’s emotional interpretation of gang delinquency

Distinct “lower class” subculture evolved via Amercian industrialization and assimilation of Immigrants from Europe

Distinct lower class with distinct values and norms

65
Q

What are the Long term effect of class analysis

A

Lower class culture= specific norm and values= leads to gang delinquency

Actual characteristics associated with youth gangs are appropriate to the lower class subcultures in society

Specific characteristics or behaviours= entirely appropriate to lower “class” subcultures even though they violate moral and legal codes

Behaviour of “lower class” gang members= consistent with conforming to values of many American “lower class” communities

66
Q

What are the values and characteristics through 6 focal concerns?

A
  • Trouble
    Revolving around getting away with law violations
  • Toughness
    Showing physical power and fearlessness
  • Smartness
    Ability to con or dupe others
  • Excitement
    Seeking thrills, risk-taking and danger
  • Fatalism
    Being lucky or unlucky
  • Autonomy
    Freedom from authority and independence
67
Q

What is differential Opportunity by Cloward and Ohlin

A
  • Key leaders of Theory

They retained the notion of determinism and difference (positivism)

They retained the sociological focus on situations

They attempted to go beyond Merton and Sutherland and Shaw and Mackay

68
Q

How does Cloward and Ohlin respond to Merton’s strain theory?

A
  • From Merton: Blocked Opportunities

C+ O : Apply strain to subcultures

C+O: argues that there is an unequal access to illegitimate opportunities

69
Q

How does Cloward and Ohlin respond to Shaw and Mckay’s spatial variation

A

From Shaw and Mckay: Spatial Variation
- C+O locate gangs in certain urban areas

70
Q

How does Cloward and Ohlin respond to Sutherland’s Differential association theory?

A

Sutherland: Associations and Interactions

C+O apply association to subcultural interaction

71
Q

What are the 5 key questions?

A
  • What are we trying to explain?
  • Where (who) do we find subcultures
  • Why do some people not conform?
  • Why do gangs commit certain kinds of deviance
  • Why do delinquents subcultures persist or change?
72
Q

What are the solutions of Subcultural Theories

A

Increase access to legitimate opportunities
(meaning: Creating a collectively space that was more conducive to conforming behaviour)

Decrease access to illegitimate opportunities
(meaning;
- Reduces the proximity
- Reduce temptation
- Reduce intimidation

(May create a displacement effect)

Reducing the motivation is more effective to reducing harm generating behaviour.
However there are a range of barriers to decreasing access to illegitimate opportunities.

73
Q

What is the strengths of Subcultural Theories

A
  • No longer exclusively individualistic, group focus and intervention on the group
  • Bridges macro and micro contexts off people’s experiences
  • it draws attention to inequalities, blocked opportunities, sociogeographic conditions, and group associations simultaneously
74
Q

What are the limitations of Subcultural theories

A
  • Partially proactive but also reactive
  • Do not take into account racial tensions or gendered dynamics (emphasis on economic strain)
  • Assumption of normative consensus
  • Deterministic: lack of individual agency
  • Assumption of high levels of organization in types of deviant gangs but it’s not necessarily so in youth gangs
  • Research on gang deviance fed moral panic
75
Q

What is crime in the subcultural theory context?

A

Crime is “lower class” +. disorganized communities + deviant associations + unequal access
= which creates a recipe for generating gang deviance

76
Q

Where does Subcultural Theories fall on the four quadrant model?

A

This theory is macro synchronic.
Partially degree of macro, there is a consensus based element within the theory, like the socio-economic inequalities, but the theory is relative partially, because it recognizes the inequality, but does not provide the solution of eradictaing the strains, but aims to help people to better adapt to the society.

  • There are micro dimensions as it draws on differential association theory.

It is synchronic because it focuses on blocked opportunities in a particular moment in time

Positivist Theories (2 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions