Midterm Exam Flashcards
Stanley Milgram Paper (1963)
Obedience & How it relates to the ability to Harm
Author Name: Stanley & Milgram
Background: atrocities during WW2, what motivates humans to harm others, relationship between authority and capacity to harm.
Hypothesis: Most people wouldn’t go to the danger zone, only a few might. We fundamentally underestimate our capacity to harm when following orders.
Main Structure: fake experiment (memory test), 3 people (experimenter, subject/teacher, victim learner)
Methods: subject must administer shocks in memory test (danger done). At 300 volts the learner stops answering and pounds for help, silence is considered wrong, and if the subject hesitates they are given encouragement.
IV: N/A
DV: the highest shock level the teacher would go to without stopping.
Results: We abandon out values to obey authority, and we will try to justify these actions.
Critiques:
- causes emotional distress
- more diversity / larger sample size
-clear instructions and guidelines to minimize confusion and risk
Hard (or Natural Sciences) vs. Social Sciences is there a difference?
Hard science: Physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology
explanation , understanding, and predictability through observation and experimentation
Social sciences: Psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science
Why do we study psychology? And why do we study research methods in psychology?
- To understand human behavior
- To understand ourselves as individuals
- To understand others
- Interventions: counciling, family therapy, risky behaviors, education (in school), training (on the job), political psychology
- A solid foundation for other psychology courses
-Other psychology courses are about content…
-…but research methods is about process
-We see how sound, scientific research is conducted
-We learn how to do our own research to answer our own questions
-We are better able to read and understand the research of others
-We learn how to be skeptical of other research
-We learn how to adapt and apply existing research findings to our own specific situation - We learn how to communicate about research in speaking and in writing
-Writing APA style
-speaking-Professional Presentations
-Posters-Scientific Presentations
-The Charter of W&M
-we read good science and write good science and discuss good science we will learn to do good science
-“If you read junk, watch junk, and eat junk, you will be junk” - Rev Jessie Jackson
-Professional Development - graduate school
Ways of Knowing
The liberal arts
Grammar, logic, and rhetoric (the trivium)
Arithmetic, geometry, the theory of music, and astronomy (the quadrivium)
Epistemology: the theory of knowledge, especially the methods, validity, and scope of knowing. An understanding of what differentiates justified belief from opinion
Ways of knowing authority: authority
Basing our beliefs on what we are told by others
Examples? (parents, teachers, textbooks)
Authority brings stability and consistency and can be very beneficial, especially if knowledge gained is brand new
Problem: authorities can be wrong!
Ways of Knowing: Reason / Logical Argument
- Use of reason via conversation (discourse) to come to a consensus
- Uses the a priori method
a. Based on argument and logic, not direct experience
b. Denoting conclusions derived from premises or principles - Problems:
a. Our initial assumptions may be incorrect
b. By using reason/logic alone, we have no way to check the accuracy of our assumptions
c. Valid logical arguments can lead to opposite conclusions
Ways of Knowing: Empiricism / Direct Experience
- Process of learning via direct observation or experience
- problems:
a. Experiences are limited to our interpretations of them
b. Experiences can be influenced by social cognition bias - Confirmation bias
- Belief perseverance
- Availability heuristic
Attributes of Scientific Thinking in Psychology
- Determinism: is our behavior pre-determined?
- Are people like moving objects and can the behavior of humans be predicted by psychology in the same way that the movement of objects can be predicted by physics?
- Statistical or probabilistic determinism- events can be predicted but only as probabilities
- Objectivity - eliminating any bias from our own experimentation
- Other researchers should be able to verify our results through replication
- In order to make replication possible our publications need to be clear - especially the method section
- Scientific research in psychology must be based on what is observable
- Makes systematic observations
a. Less affected by bias than everyday observations - Produces public knowledge
a. Objectivity criterion - Agreement by two or more observers
b. Example → from introspection to behaviorism - Behaviorism (Watson)
- Sound scientific research in psychology is data-driven
- Here is my datum (singular)
- is my data (plural)
- Stadium, aquarium, colloquium, etcium
- I followed the Red Sox to several American League stadia
Scientific Conclusions (and therefore social conventions) are Subject to Revision
- The earth is flat
- The sun travels around the earth
- Airplanes can fly no faster than the speed sound
- Only men should have the right to vote
- Some races are inferior and should be made slaves to others (Eugenics and the Holocaust)
- Some races should be exterminated for the overall benefit of society
- War is an inevitable state in the relation between nations
Science as a Way of Knowing
- Produces tentative conclusions
a. findings subject to outcomes of future research - Asks answerable questions
a. Empirical questions (i.e answerable with data based on the use of valid scientific methods) - Develops theories that can be falsified
a. Falsification criterion
*scientists (i.e psychologists) are skeptical optimists!
We Study Empirical Questions
- While we may be attempting to answer questions about how people think, we conduct our studies by examining empirical questions
- We structure our research so our questions are empirical and can be answered through observation
- Not all questions (especially broad and important ones) can be answered empirically - but we try!
Social Problems that Need to be Addressed through Psychological Research
- Inequality and injustice in society
- Inequality and injustice in the world
- Migration and the plight of refugees
- Pollution, global warming, and climate change
- The high incarceration rate in the US
- Gun violence
- Eating disorders
- Impoverishment in all the forms that it takes
Psychology vs. Pseudoscience
- Read our Goodwin book…or see Ghost Busters
“- False science” - literally - Textbook examples → phrenology and graphology
- Compared to true science, pseudoscience
a. Associates itself with real science - Tries to appear legitimate
b. Relies heavily on anecdotal evidence - Ignores counter instances
- Results from effort justification
c. Sidesteps falsification - Avoids falsification by explaining away anomalies
d. Reduces complex phenomena to overly simplistic concepts
The Goals of Research in Psychology
- describe
a. Identify regularly occurring sequences of psychological events (e.g behaviors, thoughts, emotions, ect.) - predict
a. Psychological events follow certain “laws” that are regular and therefore predictable - Explain
a. Psychological events are explained in terms of their relationship to other factors
b. Causal explanations are ideal - apply
a. Science informs real-world applications of psychological events - Controlling behavior (?_…
a. B.F. Skinner Beyond Freedom and Dignity
Controlling Behavior?
- How about instead, influencing behavior
a. Learning - Education in schools and training on the job;
b. Early intervention
c. Rehabilitation, socialization, and training of convicted criminals (problems with recidivism):
d. Self-acceptance
e. Marketing
f. Avoiding risky or dangerous behaviors
g. Influencing people through persuasion instead of forcing them through threats
Scientific Thinking in Psychology
- Psychology is a science and adheres to the assumptions and goals of science
- Science distinguishes itself from pseudoscience by being systematic, empirical, data-driven, tentative, and falsifiable
- As psychological scientists, we strive to describe, predict, explain, and apply what we discover from our research
Overmier & Seligman Article (1967)
Dog Electric shock through the floor; learned helplessness
Author Name: Overmier & Seligman
Background: researchers wanted to see if learned helplessness would happen after being exposed to previous shock in different time periods
Hypothesis: After exposure, when shocked they would give up
Main Structure: 3 experiments
-initial shock exposure
- seeing if twitching helped with shock exposure (similar results)
- varying time in between shocks
Methods
- strapped dogs in so they couldn’t move
- shocked them from floor
- paralyzed some to stop twitching
IV: the pre trial exposure to shocks with the intensity and duration of and between shocks
DV: how the dogs reacted to the shock from the floor; if they laid down and accepted to shocks or if they escaped
Results: dogs experience learned “helplessness” where they believed there was nothing they could do to get out based on their past experiences.
Critiques:
- different settings between treatment and performance task
- differing apparatuses for shock treatment
no internal control group for experiment 2
- minimal shock intensity difference between “high intensity” condition and treatment condition
Developing the APA Code of Ethics
- Historical cases of ethically questionable research
a. Watson & Rayner (1920)- scaring little albert
b. McGraw (1941)- effects of repeated pinpricks
c. Dennis (1941)- raising children in isolation - First code → 1953
a. Hobbs committee
b. Critical incidents techniques - APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
a. 2002 (2010 amendments)
APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
- Guidelines for ethical behavior for the practice of research, clinical work, and teaching in psychology
- Applies to all of us in the field of psychology
- Code contains:
a. 5 general principles
b. 10 standards of practice
http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx
5 General Principles APA
- Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
a. Constantly weigh costs & benefits; protect from harm; produce for greatest good - Fidelity and Responsibility
a. Be professional; constantly be aware of responsibility to society - Integrity
a. Be scrupulously honest - justice
a. Always treat people fairy - Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity
a. Safeguard individual rights; protect rights of privacy and confidentiality
10 Sections on Ethical Guidelines
Section 1: Resolving Ethical Issues
Section 2: Competence
Section 3: Human Relations
Section 4: Privacy and Confidentiality
Section 5: Advertising and Other Public Statements
Section 6: Record Keeping and Fees
Section 7: Education and Training
Section 8: Research and Publication
Section 9: Assessment
Section 10: Therapy
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans
Standard 8: Research and Publication
a. Several particular points, all of which fall under the General Principles. Some highlights:
- Identify potential risks
- Protect participants from physical and psychological harm
- Justify remaining risks
- Obtain informed consent
- Take care of participants after the study (debriefing)
Weighing benefits and costs: the IRB
- IRB = Institutional Review Board
- Determines whether the project meets ethical guidelines
a. Some research is exempt from review
b. Some research gets an expedited review
c. Some research requires a full review - Key factor: degree of risk to subjects
a. No risk (could be exempt)
b. Minimal risk (expedited)
c. At risk (full) - Issues: judging methodological adequacy, no appeal, anti-basic research, overly cautious
- Informed consent
a. Sufficient information provided to research participants to decide whether to participate - Historic examples of poor consent
a. Tuskegee syphilis study
b. Willowbrook hepatitis study
c. MK-ULTRA (CIA & LSD) - Deception in Research
a. Desire to have subjects act naturally
b. Milgram obedience study as an example - Cover story → effect of punishment on learning
- Real purpose → limits of obedience to authority
-No consent needed in some circumstances
a. Some survey, educational, archival, and observational research
Elements APA
- Study’s basic description
a. Enough information to decide whether to participate - How long participation will take
- May quit at any time
- Confidentiality and anonymity ensured
- Contact information given (researcher, IRB)
- Opportunity to obtain final results of the study
- Signatures