Final Material Flashcards
A distribution may be positively skewed (to the right), symmetrical, or negatively skewed (to the left). Note where mean, median, and mode are.
Product of the Binomial, or Gaussian Distribution: The area under the normal curve
In statistics, a normal distribution or Gaussian distribution is a type of continuous probability distribution for a real-valued random variable. The general form of its probability density function is. Normal distribution.
Kurtosis
Positive kurtosis indicates heavier tails and a more peaked distribution, while negative kurtosis suggests lighter tails and a flatter distribution. Kurtosis helps in analyzing the characteristics and outliers of a dataset. The measure of Kurtosis refers to the tailedness of a distribution
- Leptokurtic (thin)
- Mesokurtic
- Platykurtic (flat)
Algebra
y = mx + b
y = (slope times x ) plus the y intercept
Monotonic & Nonmonotonic Functions
Quadratic Equation
y= x^2 + x + b
Cubic Equation
y = x^3 + x^2 + x + b
Positive & Negative Accelerated Increasing and Decreasing Function
Scatterplots
Visually show correlations
- careful not to confuse correlation with slopeSS
Different ways to analyze data
- one-sample t-test
- independent samples t-test
- dependent (or repeated measures, or correlated) samples t-test
- one way ANOVA
- two way ANOVA
- chi-square
- regression
Three tests relevant to “single-factor design”
- independent samples t-test
- dependent (or repeated measures, or correlated) samples t-test
- one way ANOVA
Single Factor Experimental Design
single factor experimental design- two levels
- between-subjects
- within-subjects
single factor- more than two levels
- between-subjects
- within-subjects
Factors, Levels, Cells (or Treatments)
- factors is the thing we compare
- levels looks at treatments
- each cell represents an amount of people
- 1 by 2
- 1 by 4
- 2 by 4
Between subjects vs within-subjects
Between-subjects:
- Different levels of the IV are administered to different groups of participants (each participant is administered only one level)
- Each participant has only one score on the DV so scores cannot vary “within” each participant, they can only vary between participants
Within-subjects:
- Different (multiple) levels of the IV are administered to each participant (each participant usually receives every level)
- Each participant has as many scores on the DV as there are two or more levels so scores can vary “within” each participant
- Scores (average across all levels) can also vary between participants
Different statistical tests correspond to different experimental designs
Tests associated with “Single Factor–Two Levels” design:
Independent Samples t-test
Dependent Samples t-test
Independent Samples t-test
- Corresponds to “single factor—two levels, between-subject” design
- Use this when you have two separate groups of participants and you want to compare means from these groups
- Goodwin makes distinction between “independent groups design” (with random assignment) and “nonequivalent groups design” (quasi experiments where random assignment is not possible).
- Find the two means, find the difference between these means, and see if this difference is “significantly” greater than zero
Example of a nonequivalent group design
Sex Aggression
male 23
male 12
male 10
male 7
female 18
female 49
female 31
female 25
Dependent Samples t-test
- Corresponds to “single factor—two levels, within-subject” design
- Use this when you have one group of participants being tested 2 times and you want to compare means at the 2 different times (“within-subjects design”)
- And use it with “matched groups”
- Find the mean of each participant’s or pair’s “difference score” and see if this is “significantly” greater than zero
- Counterbalancing…
Tests associated with “single Factor-More Than Two Levels” design
One-Way ANOVAs
Factor, Levels, Cells (or Treatments)
One-Way ANOVAs
Regular One-Way ANOVA
One Way ANOVA Example
Repeated Measures One-Way ANOVA
Repeated Measures One-Way ANOVA Example
Control Groups
Chi Square
Chi-Square Example
Kasser & Sheldon Article (2000)
OF WEALTH AND DEATH:
MATERIALISM, MORTALITY SALIENCE, AND CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR (2002)
Author Name: Kasser & Sheldon
Background:
- humantisitc & terror-management theories of materialism
- terror management theory: “in order to cope with the overwhelming anxiety resulting from the realization of one’s inevitable demise, people believe in cultural worldviews that help them feel that they have meaningful lives and are worthy members of their culture”
Hypothesis: They predicted that those who wrote about death would be more materialistic. They thought that those people experience more anxiety so they consume more resources in an attempt to have a more meaningful life.
Main Structure:
- Study 1: Participants were asked to either write about death or a neutral condition (music) to inflict “anxiety” and then asked to describe their financial expectations for themselves within the next 15 years.
- Study 2: Had a similar construct in terms of what the participants were asked to write about. But the assessment included having participants participate in a forest-management game to measure fear and greed.
Methods:
- 60 undergraduate students (21 male and 39 female) were offered extra credit to complete a survey packet.
- Subjects wrote down 6 personal strivings they were focused on and used a 9-point scale to rate how those strivings might help them get to 6 possible futures: self-acceptance/personal growth, affiliation, community feeling, (3 intrinsic) an attractive appearance, social recognition, and financial success (3 extrinsic).
- A relative extrinsic orientation score was computed for each subject by subtracting the ratings for the three intrinsic possible futures from the ratings of the three extrinsic possible futures.” Higher scores indicated greater material focus.
IV: topic of the writing (death or neutral)
DV: future financial expectations and consumption ratings
Results: showed that the feelings of insecurity produced by thoughts of death can produce materialistic behavior, but that there is only correlational evidence for this.
- Those in study 1 who wrote about more neutral conditions were found to have higher expectations for themselves in 15 years
- Those in study 2 who wrote about death were more “greedy” in their consumption ratings.
Critiques:
* see image
Factorial Design Basics
- more than one independent variable
a. not just more than one level of one IV) - use this notion
a. 2 x 3 Factorial Matrix
b. Read Two by Three”
c. Use ANOVA to look for significant differences - can’t use t-tests because
Type of Factorial Design?
How do we sketch a 2x2x2x3 design?
How do we sketch a 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 4 design?
Factorial Design Basics
Suppose we want to see how males and females differ on measures of aggression/fear when presented with stimuli of various kinds/levels of threat. This is useful on Halloween!
- DV: Level of aggression/fear
- IV1: Gender (male, female – subject variable, see 2nd part of lecture)
- IV2: Imagery (control, somewhat threatening, very threatening)
This 2 x 3 matrix has 6 possible conditions (notice 2 x 3 = 6)
- A 4 x 2 x 3 matrix would have 24 conditions
- Each IV is called a factor with x number of levels
Vocab is Important
In summary, a 2 x 3 factorial matrix has
2 independent variables AKA factors
- Factor A has two levels
- Factor B has three levels
Combined, there are 6 possible conditions
Interpreting Results
Looking for main effects
Interpreting the results
- Main effects - when the row means or column means are not equal (could be both, could be neither, could be either one)
- ANOVA needed to test for significant differences
Main Effects
- Column means: 10.67, 8.67
Main effect for GENDER –> column means are not equal. Men & women differ on their average scores.
- Row means: 4, 10, 15
Main effect for THREAT LEVEL –> row means are not equal. Scores differ by condition.
- Both factors contain a main effect
Interactions
Main Effects & Interactions
Two Significant main effects, no interaction
One significant main effect & significant interaction
Significant interaction, no main effects
What is the purpose of interactions?
Types of factorial Designs
Mixed Factorial Designs
Counterbalancing
Different Types of Factorials
P x E designs
Subject variables
Interpreting Subject Variables
The “E” Variable
Examples of the P x E design
Notes on Factorial Designs
This can get complicated quickly!
Making sense of interactions more complex than three-way interactions can be daunting!
Significant Differences
Significance
Setlle, Ball, & Runk (1997)
Listening to Mozart Does Not Enhance Backwards Digit Span Performance (1997)
Author Name: Setlle, Ball, & Runk
Background: Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993) reported that participants in the study increased their mean spatial reasoning scores by 8 or 9 IQ points after listening to Mozart’s music for 10 minutes.
- This was labeled the “Mozart Effect,” and was found to be temporary, only lasting for 10-15 minutes.
- Attempts by Kenealy and Monsef(1994), Newman et al.(1995), Stough et al.(1994), and Carstens et al.(1995) were all unsuccessful in replicating the original findings.
- Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1995) reported a replication of the Mozart effect, specifying that an appropriate task should involve spatial recognition, as well as incorporating spatial and temporal transfusions.
Hypothesis: examine whether a Mozart effect would be produced following the procedure of Rauscher et al. (1993).
Main Structure:
- Used backwards digit span performance as the dependent variable, adhering to Rauscher’s specification that the task should involve spatial and temporal transformations.
- The study consisted of a within-subjects design with 2 independent variables and a control condition.
Methods
- Thirty-six Euro-American university students (28 Women and 8 men) from a psychology course who volunteered and received course credit for participating.
- Two stimulus tapes of a 10 minute duration were used:
–> Mozart Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major (K448)
–> Recording of a gentle rainstorm (“Spring Showers”)
- Sequences of digits were recorded on separate tapes for the digit span task.
- Participants were told the experiment concerned the effect of relaxation on recall and were sat in a comfortable recliner chair.
- All participants listened to the Mozart tape, the rainstorm tape, and sat quietly after being told to “relax,” with the order of each stimulus being counterbalanced using a Latin square design.
- After exposure to the stimulus condition participants listened to three nine-digit sequences and attempted to repeat the sequence in reverse order after each one.
- Correct recall was defined as the correct digit in the correct serial location.
IV: Type of music listed to (Mozart or spring showers)
DV: the sum of number of digits correctly recalled in reverse order.
Results
- No difference overall in mean recall as a function of preceding stimulus condition.
- Lack of differences not due to unsystematic variability.
- Clear practice effect was observed.
- Mean recall improved by additional experience with the task.
- no significant differences among treatments
- Exposure to Mozart’s music was not followed by an enhancement in performance on the backwards digit span task.
Critiques
*see image
Keltner, Ellsworth & Edwards (1993)
Beyond Simple Pessimism: Effects of Sadness and Anger on Social Perception (1993)
Author Name: Keltner, Ellsworth & Edwards
Background:
- General positive and negative moods shown to influence various judgments.
- (see Forgas & Bower 1987)
–> Personal Efficacy
–> TAT Scores
–> Social Performance
- However, not much research on specific effects that diff. emotions have on judgments
Hypothesis Overall:
- Empirical Question: Do different negative emotions influence judgments in more specific ways than creating a general pessimism?
- Hypothesis: Sadness and anger will exert different influences on causal judgments.
Effects of Sadness & Anger on Judgements of the Probability of Future Events
- Experiment #1: Sad participants will perceive situationally caused events as more likely than angry participants. Angry participants will perceive events caused by humans as more likely than sad participants.
Effects of Sadness & Anger on Judgements on Causal Judgments of an Ambiguous Situation
- Experiment #2:
Sad participants will emphasize the situation as being the cause of an ambiguous situation.
Angry participants will emphasize other people’s actions as being the cause of an ambiguous event.
Sad participants will perceive an ambiguous situation as hopeless.
Angry participants will perceive others’ actions as unfair in an ambiguous situation.
Main Structure
- 48 college students from intro psych class at Stanford
- 2x2 Factorial Design
Students were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions
Methods
- experiment #1:
–> Participant Instructions: the survey will investigate the way people imagine hypothetical scenarios.
–> Emotion Induction (sadness or anger)
–> Life Events Questionnaire
- experiment #2:
–> Same false instructions as Exp. #1
–> Emotion Induction - same as Exp #1**
–> Target Situation
–> Questionnaire (rating on 1-9 scale)
a. Target situation’s causes
b. Situation’s hopelessness
c. Fairness of others’ actions
d. Your emotions (sad, angry, guilty, contemptuous, happy, proud)
IV: were induced sadness and induced anger
DV: Rated probability 1-10 of life events
Results
- statistically significant differences
- 3 way interaction between Emotion, Agency of Judgement & Form Type was significant (partially confirms hypothesis)
- Emotion and Judgement Interaction = Not significant (doesn’t support hypothesis)
- Sad participants were more likely than angry participants to attribute the mishap to situational forces. Angry participants were more likely than sad ones to attribute it to other people.
- Sad participants perceived the situation to be more hopeless than angry participants. Angry participants perceived other people as less fair than angry participants.
Overall:
- Researchers found that different negative emotions would result in different interpretations of events.
- Sadness → More situational agency
Anger → More human agency
Used different manipulations & measures to confirm this
Sadness and anger BOTH influence judgments of…
- Probability of future events caused by humans or situational forces
- Responsibility for an embarrassing social situation
- The sources of one’s own life circumstances and future problems.
In real life..
- Emotions are more salient → have greater effect (most likely)
*experiments #3-5 replicated results of experiment 1 while adjusting certain conditions and the results supported the original hypothesis
Critiques see image
Main effects and Interactions
One main effect or
Two main effects or
No main effects
And
Interaction or
No interaction
Color vs Black & White
What kind of effect is this?
One main effect: color vs Black & White
If one is always higher than the other, this is one main effect AND no interaction (parallel)
- you don’t say it depends (doesn’t depend)
Hands on Vs Cognitive
What kind of effect is this?
one main effect AND no interaction
- it doesn’t depend
Color vs. B&W, Hand on vs. Cognitive
Two main effects
- color (one is higher & one is lower)
- hands on (one is higher & one is lower)
NO interaction (they are parallel & don’t cross)
effect? interaction?
No main effect AND no interactions
effect? interaction?
main effect for color vs black & white (no effect for hands on vs cognitive) AND interaction
- the means are not different (hands on vs cognitive)
- the means are different (for color between )
(this is why on main effect) FIX BASED ON NEXT card - they will eventually cross (interaction)
a. it depends, color is better for hands on topic than black and white is for hands on, there is no difference for cognitive topic
effect? interaction?
main effect for hands on vs. cognitive
only, and an interaction
- mean of color fr hands on vs cognitive meets in middlke
- mean of balck and white is in middle for hands on vs cogniitve
(this is why no main effect for color)
type of effect? interaction?
interaction and two main effects
it depends, if you teach a hand on (color), if teaching cog (doesn’t matter much)
type of effect? interaction?
interaction BUT no main effect
it depends, on if you teaching hands on ( you should use black and white) when teaching cognitive (use color)
effect? intercation?
an interaction: effective for women over 40 when combined w exercise. no effect for age or gender.
NOTE: Sometimes the interactions are more informative than the main effects
reverse coding
some questions have comfortability as a high number, and some have comfortability as a lower number
- be careful when analyzing data (most make sure its all correlated in the right way)
survey research
Sampling Issues in survey research:
biased vs representative samples
- non-probability vs probability samples
- self-selection bias
–> e.g election of 1936
Surveys vs Psychological Assessment:
- attitudes, opinions, beliefs, projected behaviors
- VS.
- psychological functioning
creating an effective survey
types of survey questions or statement:
- open-ended vs. closed questions
- “most important problem” question
- use of Likert scales
a. avoid response bias (response acquiescense)
- assessing memory and knowledge
a. moderate us of DK alternative
Adding demographic information
- basic identifying data (e.g age, income)
- place at end of survey
A key problem: Survey wording
- avoid ambiguity (pilot study helps)
- don’t ask for two things in one question
a. double-barreled questions
- avoid biased and leading questions
collecting survey data
in person interview surveys
- positives –> in-person, comprehensive, follow ups possible
- negatives –> representative samples, cost, logistics, interviewer bias
mailed surveys
- positives –> low cost ease of sampling
- negatives –>
phone surveys
- positives –> cost, efficiency
- negative –> must be brief, response rate
electronic surveys
- positives –> cost, efficiency
- negative –> sampling issues, ethics
- sugging (can i sell you something) (and frugging: fundraising) not research
Ethical considerations
- using and abusing survey data
Correlation
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation
Scatterpolts
Correlation Coefficients
Coefficient of Determination
Be aware of outliers
Regression: Making Predictions
Interpreting Correlational Results
Combined non-experimental and experimental methods
Campbell, Peplau and DeBro (1992)
Women, Men, and Condoms
Attitudes and Experiences of Heterosexual College Students (1992)
Author Name: Campbell, Peplau and DeBro (1992)
Background
- AIDS became the leading cause of death for all Americans ages 25-44 years old in the mid 1990’s.
- Only 13% of sexually active college students always use a condom during vaginal intercourse and 66% had never used a condom. (Baldwin 1988).
- Research on birth control has found that women rate both ease and use and familiarity as more important characteristics of condom usage than do men.
Hypothesis
- Men and women would differ on each of the four domains of attitudes about condoms (comfort and convenience, efficacy, interpersonal, sexual sensation).
Main Structure
Researchers surveyed 393 undergraduate students (213 women, 180 men) aged 18-24 at UCLA about attitudes and experiences involving condom use in four different categories.
Methods
- College students completed a 16 page paper questionnaire.
- Included:
Demographic characteristics
Dating experience
Sexual history
- Taken in separate room, completed questionnaires placed in plain envelopes and returned to researchers.
IV: man or woman
DV: attitudes about condom use
Results
They found that students were generally favorable towards condom use, and that a positive attitude towards condoms was related to intent to use condoms in the future. They also reported some slight gender differences: women had a more positive attitude towards condoms, while men believed them more effective.
Critiques see image
Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev (2000).
A THREATENING INTELLECTUAL ENVIRONMENT: Why Females Are Susceptible to Experiencing Problem-Solving Deficits in the Presence of Males (2002)
Author Name: Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev (2000)
Background
- Stereotype Threat: When placed in the minority and asked to perform in a stereotyped domain, people are reminded of the stereotype that negatively impacts their group’s image
Hypothesis: Female performance deficits that occured would only happen in the stereotyped domain
- Tokenism: Regardless of which domain people are in, they face the pressure of being responsible to represent members of their group in a positive light due to self-consciousness created by the ‘token status’
- Threatening Intellectual Environment: any environment that can set the presence of threatening effects of gender stereotypes in motion
- Distinctiveness Theory: Having a minority status can cause a sense of group identity which can then cause them to become more aware of their identity as a minority in the group (example: females increasingly outnumbered by males become more aware of their status as a female)
Hypothesis: Female performance deficits that occured would occur in both the stereotyped and non stereotyped domains
Main Structure & Methods
experiment #1: Was designed to look at whether females placed in a minority condition (where they are outnumbered by males) experience declines in performance in comparison to females who are placed in a same-sex condition (where they are only with other females) in order to test the stereotype threat and tokenism hypotheses
experiment #2:
Participants were both male and female
Participants completed a math test only
IV: presence of males or just females
DV: performance on tests
Results
Experiment 1: Findings showed that when females were placed in a threatening intellectual environment, they tended to demonstrate deficits in mathematical performance
Experiment 2: Findings showed that results replicated, male participants were not affected by sex-composition manipulation, and that females scored the lowest in minority condition, middle in mixed-sex condition, and highest in same-sex condition
Critiques see image
Observational Research
Varieties of observational research
- naturalistic observation: describing behaviors in natural settings
a. observer is unobtrusive, or
b. habituation assumed - (e.g, with animal observations (Goodall example)
c. Examples: - Snack selection at movie theaters
- Gender differences in behaviors at a bar
- Helping behaviors in a preschool setting
- Random Family: Love, Drugs, Trouble, and Coming of Age in the Bronx, Adrian Nicole LeBlanc
- Participant observation
a. experimenter joins group being observed
b. Ex. Fetsinger’s study of a cult - data recording issues
- Ethical issues and reactivity
–> Experimenters changing the group
Challenges facing observational methods
absence of control
- but falsification of strong claims possible
observer bias
- use of behavior checklists
- interobserver reliability
- time and event sampling
Participant
- Use of unobtrusive measures helps
Ethics
- Consent and privacy issues (Box 10.2)
Observational Research: Research exmaple 29 from Crowley et al. (2001)
- observational study
- naturalistic observation in a science museum
- consent obtained (unusual in observational research)
- event sampling used
- results –> parents (Dads and Moms) explain science concepts more to their sons than to their daughters
Observational Research: Research example 30
- “covert” participant observation at a homeless shelter
a. Discovering “identity maintenance strategies” in homeless individuals
b. Experimenter served as a volunteer at homeless shelter
–> She had already done so for 2 years prior
c. Experimenter kept a journal of her observations for 3 months
d. Results –> how individuals interacted with others and how they thought of themselves depended upon how long they were homeless
Observational Research: Thematic Analysis
analyzing qualitive data from non-experimental designs
- method of identifying patterns of responses - or themes- in within qualitative data
- Six steps:
1. get familair with the data
2. code
3. search for themes
4. review themes
5. define and name themes
6. write report
Archival Research
- data previously collected for some other purpose
- often undergoes content analysis: A procedure for systematically categorizing the content of the behavior (often verbal) being recorded
- Susceptible to missing data and bias, but no reactivity
- Research Example 31
a. IV –> patient recovering room
–> Experimental –> pleasant view of park
–> Nonequivalent control –> brick wall
b. DV –> recovery & other factors (better for room with a view)
Analyzing archival data
factor analysis
- identifies what tests/items cluster to form factors
Meta-analysis
- a special case of archival research
- analysis of eefcet sizes across multiple studies all related to a simialr topic
- two main questiuons can b answrred
a. is the effect consistent across studies?
b. if the effect is consistent, what is the effect size
Eron, Lefkowitz, Huesmann & Walder (1972)
Does Television Violence Cause Aggression? (1972)
Author Name: Eron, Lefkowitz, Huesmann & Walder
Background
- Television has become widely available only within the last ~20 years, and many newer programs, both intended and unintended for children, contain violent imagery
-Recent research has shown that children can replicate violent behavior that is shown to them on film, particularly when that behavior is conveyed through cartoons (Bandura, Ross & Ross 1963)
Hypothesis
Young adults aggressiveness is positively related to preference for violent TV when they were 8-9 years old, and this preference is the cause of aggression
Main Structure
- Longitudinal
- A sample of 875 third graders (aged 8-9) was evaluated in 1960, and a reduced pool of 427 teenagers (aged 18-19) from the original sample was again evaluated in 1970: of the second pool, 211 were male and 216 were female
Methods
- Aggression” was measured by asking the students “Guess Who?” style questions about their peers, featuring 10 categories related to who was most likely to commit a variety of aggressive actions. Some examples include “Who starts a fight over nothing?”, “Who says mean things?”, etc.
-When asked again after 10 years, the method was the same but questions were modified for the age group, now asking questions relating to work, relationships, etc.
-Furthermore, when participants were interviewed again at age 18-19, the authors now included a self-reported level of aggressiveness, proxied by how often they participated in antisocial behavior
IV: preference for violent television
DV: aggression
Results
- For boys, there was a positive relationship between a preference for violent television programs in the third grade and peer-rated level of aggressiveness both at ages 8-9 and 18-19
-Alternatively, for girls, there was no significant relationship
LATER: The results show a positive correlation between preference for violent television in the third grade (TVVL3) and peer-rated level of aggressiveness in both age groups (AGG3, AGG13). However, it is important to note that this relationship does exist at a fairly weak confidence level.
Critiques
direct causality can not be obtained from a correlational study
APA Style
Chi-Square
T tests
ANOVAs
don’t copy spss chart, put the data is words (example in slides)
Spearman’s Rho
Citations in APA style
Direct Quotations
In the Reference Section
Additional Pointers on Papers
Infinitives
This vs That
Who or Whom
Additional Reminders
Quasi-Experimental Design and Applied Research
Dual Functions of Applied Research
What differentiates true experiments from quasi experiments?
Design Problems in Applied Research
Quasi-experimental
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs
Interrupted Time Series Designs
Human Factors Research (applied)
Categories of Human Errors
Archival Data
Program Evaluation
Cost-effectiveness analysis
Monitoring Programs
Program Evaluation
In-house vs Outside Auditors
Needs Assessment
Other Issues of Applied Research
Other Issues of Applied Research Influencing public perception through the choice of words
Applied vs Basic
Piscini and Langholtz (2000)
Psychological Dimensions of Conflict Resolution Analyzed in Four United Nations Peacekeeping Missions
Author Name: Piscini and Langholtz (2000)
Background:
- UN peacekeeping revitalized after the end of the Cold War (Consent no longer required)
- Diehl (1993) identified four influencing factors for the success of a peacekeeping mission through a primarily political lens (Not the whole picture)
- Previous psychological research:
High levels of stress for peacekeepers
Ross (2000) proposed “good-enough” conflict resolution
Third party has potential to do great good or great harm, depending on approach
Hypothesis
Piscini & Langholtz sought to identify psychological factors that influence a peacekeeping mission’s success
Main Structure & method
- Selected four recent UN peacekeeping missions (1991 - 1995)
- Analyzed each mission and its results through six psychological dimensions:
Nature of Conflict
- Also assessed outcome (success/failure)
IV: sucess of peackeeping missions
DV: factors leading to peace
Results
3 critical dimensions (nature of conflict, consent of warring parties to the peacekeeping process, and establishment of good faith between parties
Critiques see image
Ottalah and Langholtz (2002)
The Psychological Consequences of Conflict: The Role of Socioecomonic Factors in Leading to Psychological Illness in Refugees and Torture Survivors (2002)
Author Name: Ottalah and Langholtz (2002)
Background
- Civilians used to be neutral bystanders in terms of war but now they have become targets of violence.
- 90% of war casualties are civilians, compared to only 5% in World War I
- Entire populations often suffer multiple traumas of war which appears to have long-term psychological consequences
Hypothesis:
Documentation suggests that conflict trauma significantly increases the incidence of psychological symptoms and illness
This article explores the role of refugee trauma and conflict trauma play in inducing mental illness.
Main Structure
Inability to conduct an experiment in a lab, difficulty in finding participants willing to discuss their experiences, and a lack of prior mental health records in war-torn countries led the authors to conduct a literature review and a descriptive statistics analysis
IV: socioeconomic varibles
DV: psychological outcomes
Results
- Exile and torture lead to increased incidence of depression, anxiety, and PTSD
- Pre-trauma characteristics and post-trauma socioeconomic factors play a significant part in determining whether an individual who suffers these tragedies will develop mental illness
- Mental illnesses can lead to functional disability
Critiques see image
Bar Graph
Stacked Bar
Side-by-side Bar
Line Charts
Multiple Line Charts
Pie Charts
Three dimensions, An X,Y,Z Graph
ex. Generals graph
Four IVs and One DV
Why do we sometimes use small-N designs?
Research in Psychology Began with Small N
Reasons for Small N Designs
Operant Conditioning
Applied Behavioral Analysis
Elements of a single-subject designs
Withdrawal designs
Multiple baseline
Change Criterion Designs
Evaluating Singe-Subject Designs
Case Study Designs
Evaluating case studies
- Level of detail not found elsewhere
- Can serve falsification
- Limited control
- External validity issues
- Faulty memory problems
Case Studies
ex. Anne Frank
Referencing
- Norm reference
- Criterion reference(Am I happy? Is life a comparative event?)
Focus Groups (previously discussed in class but not covered in text)
- Often used in marketing or politics
- A live interview or discussion with a small N (representative sample)
- Moderator elicits opinions and records them
Additional tips on writing scientific articles for publication
Piliavin & Rodin (1969)
Good Samaritanism: An Underground Phenomenon (1969)
Author Name: Piliavin & Rodin (1969)
Background
1964- Kitty Genovese is murdered in Queens
38 witnesses saw or heard the attack, but nobody called police or helped her
Bystander Effect- occurs when individuals do not help a person in distress when other bystanders are present
Hypothesis
Testing Diffusion of responsibility hypothesis
Main Structure
- NYC subway
- Victim and model
- 70 seconds into the ride, the victim staggers, collapses, and lies face up on the ground
- The model helps the victim to a seated position
- Trial ends when the train reaches its destination, team exits and boards another train to repeat the experiment
IV:
Victim race
Victim type
Model placement
Model timing
Size of group in car
DV:
Latency of helping
Frequency of helping
Comments made by passengers
Results
- A person who appears ill is more likely to receive help than one who appears to be drunk
- For male victims, men are more likely to help than women
- Some tendency for same-race helping is more frequent; this tendency is increased when the victim is drunk rather than ill
- No strong relationship between number of bystanders and speed of helping
- Increased time the emergency continues without help
Critiques see image
Hume & Crossman (1992)
Musical Reinforcement of Practice Behaviors Among Competitive Swimmers (1992)
Author Name: Hume & Crossman
Background
- Previous research has found that during training, athletes of different sports have issues with unproductive behavior (Crossman, 1985b; Hume et al., 1985; McKenzie & Rushall, 1974)
- Previous research has also suggested that music can serve as a reinforcer for athletes (Jernberg, 1982; Schubert, 1986), and can help their performance when used in a contingent manner (Dickenson, 1977; Vyatkin & Dorfman, 1980)
- One study found that music can help athletes better tolerate periods of physical strain (Anshel & Marisi, 1978)
Hypothesis
- This study investigated whether music could be used effectively in a reinforcement contingency to
increase productive behaviors and decrease
non-productive behaviors during dryland
Main Structure & Methods
- 6 swimmers (5 completed the study) aged 12 to 16 were selected because of their history of non-productive behavior during practice
- Participants randomly assigned to contingent group or non-contingent group
Contingent: productive behavior resulted in music reward
Non-contingent: behavior had no influence on whether music was played
- Observers recorded each participant’s category of behavior in alternating 10-second intervals
IV: contingent or non-contingent music reward
DV: swimmers productivity/performance
Results
- increases in productive behavior occurred when intervention package took place
- Music may be used as a successful reinforcer when contingent on the behavior of a small group
Critiques see image
Hill and Langholtz (2003)
Rehabilitation Programs for African Child Soldiers (2003)
Author Name: Hill and Langholtz
Background
- Child soldiers (children under 18) are very prevalent worldwide, but Africa contains about ⅓ of these child soldiers
- These child soldiers usually end up with PTSD and intensely struggle with reintegration into their homes
- Humanitarian aid agencies have started adding psychological services to aid these child soldiers post war
Hypothesis: How can children who might be suffering from PTSD, who have developed an identity as a soldier, who have been socialized into a culture of violence, who have both committed and witnessed the atrocities of war, who have missed years of schooling, and who are without social support systems, be successfully rehabilitated and reintegrated into society?
Main Structure & Methods
Child soldiers are sent to Interim Care Centers (ICCs)
Except in Angola
Enrolled in school or given vocational training
Each country had their own version with help from other countries
Trauma counseling
Family reunification
IV: type of integration aide
DV: success in integration
Results
- Trauma counseling was most effective with Western and Traditional forms of healing
- Family Reunification has been one of the most important aspects for the successful rehabilitation and reintegration of child soldiers (globally)
- Community sensitization benefitted the reintegration of the former child soldiers
- The Children are able to successfully re-enter schools or vocational training without being behind or lacking skills
Critiques see image
Wagaman, Miltenberger & Arndorfer (1993)
Analysis of a Simplified Treatment for Stuttering in Children (1993)
Author Name: Wagaman, Miltenberger & Arndorfer
Background
- 1993
- ”fluency approaches”
different parts aimed to help fluency, facilitate generalization and sustain progress
Focus on airflow and regulated breathing
- Azrin & Nunn 1974-
Regulated breathing- 12 components
Results: significant reductions in stuttering
Issues:
Self-report
Replications- stuttering increased in 8 month follow up
- Attempts to simplify treatment program
Hypothesis
- Create an even more simplified form of the regulated breathing program for children
- Determine the long-term maintenance and necessity of booster sessions
- Improve methodology and include other measures
Repeated measures, generalization, social validity, acceptability & credibility, not self-report
Main Structure
Small N design
Nate, Nicki, Pat, Josh, Kay, Steve, Eric, Jake
Multiple baseline
Across subjects
Criterion
< 3% stuttered words = treatment success
Methods
Frequency within interval agreement method:
- % of agreement for each interval then avg them
- % : (smaller frequency/larger frequency of stuttering) x 100%
- Mean agreement scores across phases:
- Stuttering: 86%, 89%, 86%
- Rate of speech: 92%
IV: type of stuttering treatment (awarness training, competing response training, and social support)
DV: stuttering amount
Results:
All participants reached <3% criterion and maintained it throughout posttreatment (10-13 months)
89% reduction in stuttering
Results alike to previous studies
Critiques
- lack of participant diversity when it came to socioeconomic status or length of stuttering history
