Midterm Definitions Flashcards
1
Q
Adaptive Radiation
A
refers to the rapid diversification of a single lineage into a variety of forms that occupy different ecological niches
2
Q
Colonization of land by plants and fungi
A
- refers to the process by which these organisms moved from aquatic habitats to terrestrial environments
- resulting in major changes to the physical and environment and biotic interactions
3
Q
Effects Plants & Fungi Have
A
- modifying rocks and soil
- affecting the formation of soil
- altering the composition of Earth’s atmosphere
- creating habitats for other organisms
4
Q
Role Plants & Fungi Play in Chemical Cycling
A
- absorbing nutrients from the physical environment
- passing those nutrients to organisms that eat plants
- decomposing the bodies of dead organisms to return nutrients to the physical environment
5
Q
Carbon Recycling
A
refers to the process by which carbon moves through the living and nonliving components of an ecosystem
6
Q
How do plants affect carbon cycling?
A
- by removing large quantities of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during photosynthesis
- by contributing to the formation of coal
- removal of carbon from the air and its storage in marine rocks
7
Q
Biotic Interactions
A
are interactions between different species in an ecosystem
8
Q
How do plants and fungi affect biotic interactions?
A
- by increasing the availability of energy and nutrients for other organisms
- leading to the evolution of mutualistic and parasitic relationships
9
Q
Early plants
A
- were simple and lacked true roots and leaves
- had some adaptations for life on land
10
Q
Nutrient Uptake
A
plants formed symbiotic associations with fungi to facilitate nutrient uptake from soil
11
Q
Mycorrhizae
A
- symbiotic associations between fungi and plant roots
- helps transfer nutrients absorbed from the soil to their plant partner
12
Q
Fungal Morphology
A
- provide a large surface area across which absorption can occur
13
Q
Hyphae
A
fungi bodies consisting of a network of filaments
14
Q
Fungal Evolution
A
- molecular data indicates that fungi and animals are members of the opisthokont clade
- suggesting the ancestor of fungi was unicellular
15
Q
Multicellularity Evolution
A
- evolved independently in animals and fungi
- from different single celled ancestors
16
Q
Fossil Evidence - Fungi
A
fossils of certain unicellular marine eukaryotes that lived as early as 1.5 billion years ago have been interpreted as fungi
17
Q
Feeding By Absorption - Fungi
A
fungi secrete hydrolytic enzymes into their surrounding to break down complex molecules to smaller organic compounds that they can absorb into their cells and use
18
Q
Chitin
A
- a strong but flexible polysaccharide that strengthens the cell wall of fungi
- prevents the cells from bursting due to the pressure created by water moving into their cells
19
Q
Mycelium
A
a network of hyphae formed by multicellular fungi that grows into and absorbs nutrients from the material on which the fungus feeds
20
Q
Yeasts
A
- single cells that fungi can grow
- often inhabiting moist environments where there is a ready supply of soluble nutrients
21
Q
Mycorrhizal Fungi
A
- fungi that form mycorrhizae
- which are mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots
22
Q
Arbuscular Mycorrhizae
A
a type of mycorrhizal fungi that penetrates the cell walls of root cells and form branching structures called (arbuscules) inside the cell
23
Q
Ectomycorrhizae
A
a type of mycorrhizal fungi that forms a mantle around the outside of the root and penetrates between root cells
24
Q
Angiosperms are thought to have originated how many years ago?
A
140 million years ago
25
Evidence supporting the hypothesis that charophytes are the closet living relatives to land plants
- charophytes and plants produce cellulose in similar ways
- mitochondrial DNA sequences of charophytes are more similar to those of plants than are those of other algae
- nuclear DNA sequences of charophytes are more similar to those of plants than are those of other algae
- charophytes and plants have structurally similar sperm
26
What plants dominated the first 100 million years of plant evolution?
bryophytes
27
Why did Carboniferous period plants outcompete bryophytes?
- their vascular tissue allowed them to grow tall
- competing for light and more widely dispersing their spores
28
What group is most likely the closest relative of seed plants?
monilophytes
29
What did the Carboniferous period look like?
swampy forests dominated by tree lycophytes, horsetails and ferns
30
Rhizoids differ from roots in that rhizoids?
are not vascular
31
Karyogamy
- the event in the life cycle of sexually reproducing fungi
- involves the transition from a haploid to a diploid stage
32
What is the difference between spores and seeds?
spores are unicellular and seeds are not
33
In what groups must sperm no longer swim to reach the female gametophyte?
both gymnosperms and angiosperms
34
Xylem and phloem are found in?
- vascular plants
- lycophytes
- ferns
- gymnosperms
- angiosperms
35
Exclusively Female Flower Parts
- stigma
- ovary
- sepal
- petal
36
What are adaptations for terrestrial life seen in plants?
- sporopollenin
- an embryo protected and nourished by the parent plant
37
What major groups of fungi form mycorrhizae?
glomeromycetes
38
Bryophytes differ from other plant groups because?
their gametophyte generation is dominant
39
What major group of fungi contains the most species?
ascomycetes
40
What do spores and gametes have in common?
are both haploid
41
Gametes
- are the haploid reproductive cells
- ex. sperm and eggs
- unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote
42
How do plants reproduce?
sexually through production of gametes
43
Spores
- are haploid cells produced in the sporophyte stage by meiosis
- can divide by mitosis to develop into a multicellular haploid individual
- the gametophyte (without fusing with another cell)
44
In fungi spores
- is a haploid cell
- produced either sexually or asexually
- that produces a mycelium after germination
45
What clades define the plant kingdom?
- plantae
- streptophyta
- viridiplantae
- all proposed clades
46
Lichens
are any photosynthetic organism
47
Lichens are symbiotic associations that
involves a fungus and a green algae or cyanobacterium
48
All fungi are
- heterotrophic
- obtain carbon compounds by decomposing organic matter or by symbiotic associations with other organisms
- have feeding structures (mycelium) or a hyphae
- decomposers (recycle the nutrients from nonliving organic matter)
49
Heterotrophic
- requiring complex organic compounds of nitrogen and carbon for metabolic synthesis
- obtained from plant or animal matter
50
What provided the earliest fossil evidence of plants?
spores
51
What major group produce mushrooms?
basidiomycetes
52
Which taxon is essentially equivalent to the embryophytes?
plantae
53
Major differences between fungi and plants
fungi have an absorptive form of nutrients
54
How do fungi absorb nutrients?
- fungi do not ingest their food
- absorb nutrients from the environment outside of its body
- accomplished by secreting hydrolytic enzymes into their surroundings
- enzymes break down complex molecules to smaller organic compounds that the fungi can absorb into their bodies and use
55
What do fungi and plants and animals have in common?
- all protists
- are eukaryotic
56
What is the difference between the cell walls of fungi in comparison to plants?
- fungi are strengthen by chitin
- plants are strengthened by cellulose
57
Fungi and animals appear to be more closely related to each other than either is to plants?
based on molecular analyses
58
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi differ from ectomycorrhizal fungi in that
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi extend hyphae through plant cell walls
59
Choanoflageilates
- single celled eukaryotes
- similar to the ancestors of animals
60
Explain Animal Evolution
the process by which animals have evolved from single celled organisms to the vast diversity of living animal species seen today
61
Fossils
the remains or traces of past life preserved in rock or sediment
62
Molecular Clock
a technique used to estimate the timing of evolutionary events based on the changes in DNA sequences over time
63
Ediacaran Biota
- multicellular eukaryotes
- soft bodied
- lived during the late Precambrian period
- around 560 million years ago
64
Molluscs
- diverse group
- invertebrate animals
Ex. snails + clams + octopuses
65
Cnidarians
- a phylum of animals
Ex. sea anemones + corals + jellyfish
66
Porifera
- a phylum of animals includes sponges
67
Tissues
groups of similar cells that perform a specific function
68
Eumetazoans
- animals that have tissues
- in contrast to sponges and other basal animals
69
Gastrovascular Cavity
a central digestive compartment found in cnidarians and other animals
70
Nerve Net
a network of neurons found in cnidarians and other animals that lack a centralized brain
71
Phylogeny
the evolutionary history and relationships among groups of organisms
72
Radial Symmetry
- which the body is wheel or spoke-shaped
- no obvious front, back, left or right
73
Bilateral Symmetry
- the body has left and right sides
- body has a front and a back
- body has a top and bottom
74
What is an example of an organism that is asymmetrical?
sponges
75
What are examples of organisms that are radial symmetrical?
- jellies
- hydras
76
What are examples of organisms that are bilaterally symmetrical?
- turtles
- octopus
- snakes
- bobcats
77
Features of Deuterostomes
- true coelom/body cavity
- three tissue layers (ectoderm + mesoderm + endoderm)
- common pattern of early embryonic development
78
How do the blastopore in deuterostomes develop?
first developed into the anus and the mouth forms second
79
What are the three major deuterostome groups?
- echinoderms
- hemichordates
- chordates (including vertebrates)
80
What was a major evolution for chordates?
major innovations in several chordate lineages allowed them to colonize terrestrial habitats
81
What is chordata comprised of?
- urochordata
- vertebrata
- cephalochordate
82
Adult Echinoderm Features
- exhibit radial symmetry
- unique body plan characterized by an endoskeleton
- water vascular system
83
Hemichordates (acorn worms) Features
- openings into the throat (pharyngeal gill slits)
- burrow in marine sands or muds
- make their living by deposit feeding or suspension feeding
84
Pharyngeal Gill Slits
gill slits in the hemichordate group that function in feeding and gas exchange
85
What are the four morphological traits of chordata?
- a notochord
- pharyngeal gill slits
- a dorsal hollow nerve cord
- muscular tail that extends past the anus
86
Vertebrates Features
- chordates
- have rigid internal skeleton
- anterior skill that encases a brain
- well developed circulatory system
87
Echinoderm Features
- marine animals
- possess a specialized series of fluid-filled canals (water vascular system)
- calcified endoskeleton provides sites for muscle attachment
- five sided radial symmetry as adults
- could exhibit bilateral symmetry in larval stage
- lack a brain
- ring of nerve cells around the mouth that extends along the arms
88
What is the water vascular system composed of?
- an esophageal ring
- five radial canals with extending tube feet
- feet used for locomotion and food collection
89
What are examples of echinoderm organisms?
- sea urchins
- sea stars
- sand dollars
- sea cucumbers
- brittle stars
90
Urochordates (Tunicates) Features
- only marine environments
- most are sessile as adults
- feed by filtering water through their pharyngeal slits
- larvae are free swimming tadpole like forms (w/notochord only in tail)
91
Cephalochordates Features
- 25 species of eel like lancelets
- have a notochord that extends the length of the body
92
What structure innovations occurred during vertebrate diversification?
- jaws
- amniotic egg
- bones
93
Devonian Era
between 365 and 385 million years ago
94
Cnidarians
- radial symmetry
- two germ layers
- gastrovascular cavity
95
What is a transitional fossil?
- have features that are intermediate between ancestors and descendants
- species descend from other species
-
96
Examples of tetrapods
- birds
- reptiles
- mammals
- amphibians
97
What evidence supports the hypothesis that four-limbed animals came from fish?
- the fossil records show more and more tetrapod-like fish before the appearance of tetrapods about 365 million years ago
- fish and four limbed animals have very similar embryos
- DNA analysis shows that fish are tetrapods' closest relatives
- both fish and four limbed animals are vertebrates
98
Why have we not found examples in the fossil record of every animal that ever lived on Earth?
- to become a fossil (an animal must remain buried for thousands or millions of years until turns to rock)
- to become a fossil (an animal must be quickly and completely buried in ash or sediment before it has a chance to decompose)
- many fossils remain buried
- fossils can only be found when they are exposed by erosion or excavation
99
What were the tetrapod like characteristics in the Tiktaalik?
- interlocking ribs
- a neck
- flat head with eyes on top
100
How did the great transition from fish to tetrapods occur?
- occurred gradually over time
- products of many small evolutionary steps
- over millions of years
- these steps leave behind a series of transitional fossils
- there are many intermediate forms
101
How do septobasidium fungi obtain nutrients?
- fungal hyphae penetrate a living scale insect's body
- absorbing insect nutrients
- insects body immobilized
- rest of the insect colony benefits from the shelter the fungus provides
102
How do mycorrhizal fungi (pine tree roots) obtain nutrients?
- associate with roots
- receive carbohydrates from the pine tree
- tree receives phosphorus
- pine tree may die without this association
103
How do lepiotaceae fungi obtain nutrients?
- they cultivate final gardens with leaf cutter ants
- ants feed and care for the fungi
- the fungi serve as a food source for the ants
104
How do cordyceps app obtain nutrients?
- spores from these fungi attach to insects
- the mycelium grow into the insects body and absorb nutrients from the soft tissues
- the fungus sends up its reproductive structure through the insect's head
105
How do trichophyton spp obtain nutrients?
- one genus of fungi responsible for athlete's foot and ringworm and jock itch
- the fungi colonize the outer skin layer and utilize keratin as their food source
106
How do coprophilous fungi obtain nutrients?
- absorb nutrients from animal feces
107
How do cryphonectria parasitica obtain nutrients?
- absorb nutrients after breaking down the cells of living chestnut trees
- causing chestnut blight
108
Charophytes
are the closet living relatives of plants
109
What evidence provides the best support for the hypothesis that plants evolved from green algae?
the chloroplasts of plants and green algae all have both chlorophyll a and b
110
What is the significance of a transient diploid state in fungi?
these sexual processes generate genetic variation
111
What describes the interactions between plants and fungi?
- plants are harmed by fungal pathogens
- plants depend on fungi as mutualistic symbionts
112
What is the origin of fungi?
- multicellularity probably arose independently in fungi and animals
- DNA sequence data indicated that fungi are more closely related to several groups of unicellular protists
113
What percentage of documented animal extinctions have been of invertebrates?
50%
114
What characters of ancestral traits facilitated the colonization of land by an animal group?
- arthropod cuticle
- exoskeleton of arthropods
- lungs
- vertebrate skeleton
115
Which mammal group is characterized by offspring that are born early in development and then finish embryonic development while nursing in their mother's abdominal pouch?
marsupials
116
Clade
a group including an ancestral species and all of its descendants
117
How long ago was the first animals that biologists now classify as tetrapods appear in fossil records?
365 million years ago
118
What anatomical features do mollusks posses?
- visceral mass
- foot
- mantle
- heart
119
What animals require that eggs have a moist environment to complete development?
- toad
- caecilian
- frog
- salamander
120
What factors contributed to the diversity of the insect group?
- mouthparts specialized for feeding of plants
- wings and flight
- the radiation of flowering plants (providing new food sources)
121
What organisms that apart of the osteichthyan group?
- coelacanth
- birds
- humans
- cod
122
Class Osteichthyes
- transitional fish
- primitive groups of fish
- bony fish
123
Autotrophs
called producers
124
Heterotrophs
- called consumers
- cannot make their own food
- obtain organic material by feeding on other organisms or their waste products or remains
125
In a phylogenetic tree, a lineage that diverges from all other members of its group early in the evolutionary history of the group is described as?
a basal taxon
126
In a phylogenetic tree that is rooted, a branch point?
- often drawn farthest to the left
- represents the most recent common ancestor of all taxa in the tree
127
Basal taxon
- a lineage that diverges from all other members of its group early in the history of a group
- lies on one of the two branches that diverge near the common ancestor of the group
- lineages represented by these two branches originated at the same point in time
128
A shared ancestral character
- is a character that is not unique to a particular group
- having originated in an ancestor of that group
129
What is a shared ancestral characters for members of the turtle-leopard group?
- vertebral column
- four limbs
- hinged jaws
130
A shared derived character
is an evolutionary novelty that is unique to a particular group
131
Amnion
the innermost membrane that encloses the embryo of a mammal, bird or reptile
132
Chorion
is the outermost extra embryonic membrane of the amniotic egg
133
How do sponges differ from other animals
- they have a simple body structure
- no true tissues
- have no symmetry
134
What structures or characteristics are found among the fossils of Ediacaran fauna?
- bilateral symmetry
- scavenging
- true tissues
- filter feeders
135
A coelom is?
- a fluid filled or air filled space
- located between the digestive tract and outer body wall
136
What apart of the squamate reptiles?
- lizards
- snakes
137
The basal group in clade Eumetazoa is
Ctenophora
138
Major changes in ocean conditions during the early Cambrian period were probably linked most closely to the evolution of?
suspension feeding animals
139
How many germ layers do brachiopods posses?
three germ layers
140
Invertebrates include
all animals without a backbone
141
What are examples of organisms in the basal lineage of vertebrates?
- hagfish
- lampreys
- jawless vertebrates
142
Anatomical and molecular evidence suggests that animals may have evolved from a protist similar to a?
choanoflagellate
143
Ectoderm
- the germ layer covering the surface of the embryo
- gives rise to the outer covering of the animal
- can be the central nervous system (in some phyla)
144
Endoderm
- the innermost germ layer
- gives rise to the lignin of the digestive tract (or cavity)
145
What organs are associated with the germ layer endoderm?
- lungs
- liver
146
What germ layer do bilaterally symmetrical organisms have?
- three germ layers
- mesoderm
147
What germ layer do cnidarians organisms have?
two germ layers
148
In bilaterally symmetrical animals the mesoderm forms what?
- muscles
- digestive tract
- outer coverings of the animal
149
What germ layer does skin have?
ectoderm
150
What germ layer does lungs have?
endoderm
151
What germ layer does muscular have?
mesoderm
152
What germ layer does the stomach have?
endoderm
153
Ediacaran Biota
- an early group of macroscopic organisms
- soft bodies
- multicellular eukaryotes
- fossil range (635 million to 541 million years old)
154
The cross-fostering of California mice in white-footed mice nests provides evidence for?
the influence of the early social environment on the expression of aggressive and parental behaviors
155
What is an example of fixed action pattern?
a male stickleback attacking a red-bellied fish model
156
The structural polysaccharide of insect cuticle is
chitin
157
Pheromones function in?
- regulating sexual development
- attracting mates over long distances
- signaling alarm
- facilitating courtship over short distances
158
Hamilton's Rule
- provides a way to measure or quantify the effect of altruism on fitness
159
Altruism
is behavior that reduces an animal's individual fitness but increases the fitness of other individuals in the population
160
What are the three key variables in an act of altruism?
- the benefit to the recipient
- the cost to the altruist
- the coefficient of relatedness
161
The Benefit (altruism - Hamilton's Rule)
is the average number of extra offspring that the recipient of an altruistic act produces
162
The Cost (altruism - Hamilton's Rule)
is how many fewer offspring the altruist produces
163
The coefficient of Relatedness (altruism - Hamilton's Rule)
equals the fraction genes that on average are shared
164
Natural Selection (altruism)
favors altruism when the benefit to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness exceeds the cost to the altruist (rB>C)
165
The role of ATP in muscle contraction is
to release the myosin head from actin when it binds to myosin and to provide energy when hydrolyzed to form myosin's high-energy form
166
Muscle contractions relies on
the cycles of thin actin filaments being bound and pulled upon by thick myosin filaments
167
Each myosin molecule has
- a long tail region
- a globular head region
- head (jutting to the side) can bind to ATP
168
Cross-bridge
- between the myosin head and the actin filament is the more stable configuration
- during the pulling phase is also a shift to a more stable configuration
169
Where is energy for muscle contraction stored?
- stored in creatine phosphate
- which regenerates ATP
- in glycogen (which is broken down to glucose)
170
Tropomyosin
- a regulatory protein
- in a muscle fiber at rest
- covers the myosin-binding sites along the thin filament
- prevents actin and myosin from interacting until Ca^2+
171
Troponin Complex
- is a set of additional regulatory proteins
- are bound to the actin strands of thin filaments
- Ca^2+ binds to the troponin complex
172
Examples of behavior provides evidence of animal cognition?
- a raven pulling up a string to obtain a food item attached to it
- a biology student using various resources to study for an exam
- trained honeybees that can discriminate between the concepts of (same) and (different) by matching colors or patterns
- a chimpanzee stacking up boxes to reach a banana overhead
173
According to the concept of kind selection
- examples of altruism usually involve close relatives and increase an animal's inclusive fitness
- the likelihood of an individual acting altruistically toward another is proportional to their relatedness
- an animal would not be expected to aid its parent before it would help its sibling because it is equally related to both those individuals
174
Kin Selection
- exists where the benefits of altruism outweigh the costs
- does not apply to mate selection
- close relatives are less likely to mate
175
What are the costs of kin selection?
include those imposed by competition with siblings or other relatives for limited resources
176
A crow that aids its parents in raising its siblings is increasing its
inclusive fitness
177
Proximate causes
- are immediate causes of behavior
Ex. environmental stimuli
178
In a species in which females provide all the needed food and protection for the young
males are likely to be promiscuous
179
In social learning
an animal learns a behavior by watching others
180
In spatial learning
- an animal forms a cognitive map of its surroundings
- a representation in the nervous system of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings
181
In imprinting
an animal develops an early and long-lasting association with it parent
182
A fixed action pattern
- is a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus
- are essentially unchangeable
- once initiated usually carried to completion
