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BIO 223 Second Half > Midterm Definitions > Flashcards

Midterm Definitions Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Adaptive Radiation

A

refers to the rapid diversification of a single lineage into a variety of forms that occupy different ecological niches

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2
Q

Colonization of land by plants and fungi

A
  • refers to the process by which these organisms moved from aquatic habitats to terrestrial environments
  • resulting in major changes to the physical and environment and biotic interactions
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3
Q

Effects Plants & Fungi Have

A
  • modifying rocks and soil
  • affecting the formation of soil
  • altering the composition of Earth’s atmosphere
  • creating habitats for other organisms
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4
Q

Role Plants & Fungi Play in Chemical Cycling

A
  • absorbing nutrients from the physical environment
  • passing those nutrients to organisms that eat plants
  • decomposing the bodies of dead organisms to return nutrients to the physical environment
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5
Q

Carbon Recycling

A

refers to the process by which carbon moves through the living and nonliving components of an ecosystem

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6
Q

How do plants affect carbon cycling?

A
  • by removing large quantities of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during photosynthesis
  • by contributing to the formation of coal
  • removal of carbon from the air and its storage in marine rocks
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7
Q

Biotic Interactions

A

are interactions between different species in an ecosystem

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8
Q

How do plants and fungi affect biotic interactions?

A
  • by increasing the availability of energy and nutrients for other organisms
  • leading to the evolution of mutualistic and parasitic relationships
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9
Q

Early plants

A
  • were simple and lacked true roots and leaves
  • had some adaptations for life on land
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10
Q

Nutrient Uptake

A

plants formed symbiotic associations with fungi to facilitate nutrient uptake from soil

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11
Q

Mycorrhizae

A
  • symbiotic associations between fungi and plant roots
  • helps transfer nutrients absorbed from the soil to their plant partner
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12
Q

Fungal Morphology

A
  • provide a large surface area across which absorption can occur
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13
Q

Hyphae

A

fungi bodies consisting of a network of filaments

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14
Q

Fungal Evolution

A
  • molecular data indicates that fungi and animals are members of the opisthokont clade
  • suggesting the ancestor of fungi was unicellular
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15
Q

Multicellularity Evolution

A
  • evolved independently in animals and fungi
  • from different single celled ancestors
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16
Q

Fossil Evidence - Fungi

A

fossils of certain unicellular marine eukaryotes that lived as early as 1.5 billion years ago have been interpreted as fungi

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17
Q

Feeding By Absorption - Fungi

A

fungi secrete hydrolytic enzymes into their surrounding to break down complex molecules to smaller organic compounds that they can absorb into their cells and use

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18
Q

Chitin

A
  • a strong but flexible polysaccharide that strengthens the cell wall of fungi
  • prevents the cells from bursting due to the pressure created by water moving into their cells
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19
Q

Mycelium

A

a network of hyphae formed by multicellular fungi that grows into and absorbs nutrients from the material on which the fungus feeds

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20
Q

Yeasts

A
  • single cells that fungi can grow
  • often inhabiting moist environments where there is a ready supply of soluble nutrients
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21
Q

Mycorrhizal Fungi

A
  • fungi that form mycorrhizae
  • which are mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots
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22
Q

Arbuscular Mycorrhizae

A

a type of mycorrhizal fungi that penetrates the cell walls of root cells and form branching structures called (arbuscules) inside the cell

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23
Q

Ectomycorrhizae

A

a type of mycorrhizal fungi that forms a mantle around the outside of the root and penetrates between root cells

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24
Q

Angiosperms are thought to have originated how many years ago?

A

140 million years ago

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25
Q

Evidence supporting the hypothesis that charophytes are the closet living relatives to land plants

A
  • charophytes and plants produce cellulose in similar ways
  • mitochondrial DNA sequences of charophytes are more similar to those of plants than are those of other algae
  • nuclear DNA sequences of charophytes are more similar to those of plants than are those of other algae
  • charophytes and plants have structurally similar sperm
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26
Q

What plants dominated the first 100 million years of plant evolution?

A

bryophytes

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27
Q

Why did Carboniferous period plants outcompete bryophytes?

A
  • their vascular tissue allowed them to grow tall
  • competing for light and more widely dispersing their spores
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28
Q

What group is most likely the closest relative of seed plants?

A

monilophytes

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29
Q

What did the Carboniferous period look like?

A

swampy forests dominated by tree lycophytes, horsetails and ferns

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30
Q

Rhizoids differ from roots in that rhizoids?

A

are not vascular

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31
Q

Karyogamy

A
  • the event in the life cycle of sexually reproducing fungi
  • involves the transition from a haploid to a diploid stage
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32
Q

What is the difference between spores and seeds?

A

spores are unicellular and seeds are not

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33
Q

In what groups must sperm no longer swim to reach the female gametophyte?

A

both gymnosperms and angiosperms

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34
Q

Xylem and phloem are found in?

A
  • vascular plants
  • lycophytes
  • ferns
  • gymnosperms
  • angiosperms
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35
Q

Exclusively Female Flower Parts

A
  • stigma
  • ovary
  • sepal
  • petal
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36
Q

What are adaptations for terrestrial life seen in plants?

A
  • sporopollenin
  • an embryo protected and nourished by the parent plant
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37
Q

What major groups of fungi form mycorrhizae?

A

glomeromycetes

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38
Q

Bryophytes differ from other plant groups because?

A

their gametophyte generation is dominant

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39
Q

What major group of fungi contains the most species?

A

ascomycetes

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40
Q

What do spores and gametes have in common?

A

are both haploid

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41
Q

Gametes

A
  • are the haploid reproductive cells
  • ex. sperm and eggs
  • unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote
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42
Q

How do plants reproduce?

A

sexually through production of gametes

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43
Q

Spores

A
  • are haploid cells produced in the sporophyte stage by meiosis
  • can divide by mitosis to develop into a multicellular haploid individual
  • the gametophyte (without fusing with another cell)
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44
Q

In fungi spores

A
  • is a haploid cell
  • produced either sexually or asexually
  • that produces a mycelium after germination
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45
Q

What clades define the plant kingdom?

A
  • plantae
  • streptophyta
  • viridiplantae
  • all proposed clades
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46
Q

Lichens

A

are any photosynthetic organism

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47
Q

Lichens are symbiotic associations that

A

involves a fungus and a green algae or cyanobacterium

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48
Q

All fungi are

A
  • heterotrophic
  • obtain carbon compounds by decomposing organic matter or by symbiotic associations with other organisms
  • have feeding structures (mycelium) or a hyphae
  • decomposers (recycle the nutrients from nonliving organic matter)
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49
Q

Heterotrophic

A
  • requiring complex organic compounds of nitrogen and carbon for metabolic synthesis
  • obtained from plant or animal matter
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50
Q

What provided the earliest fossil evidence of plants?

A

spores

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51
Q

What major group produce mushrooms?

A

basidiomycetes

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52
Q

Which taxon is essentially equivalent to the embryophytes?

A

plantae

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53
Q

Major differences between fungi and plants

A

fungi have an absorptive form of nutrients

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54
Q

How do fungi absorb nutrients?

A
  • fungi do not ingest their food
  • absorb nutrients from the environment outside of its body
  • accomplished by secreting hydrolytic enzymes into their surroundings
  • enzymes break down complex molecules to smaller organic compounds that the fungi can absorb into their bodies and use
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55
Q

What do fungi and plants and animals have in common?

A
  • all protists
  • are eukaryotic
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56
Q

What is the difference between the cell walls of fungi in comparison to plants?

A
  • fungi are strengthen by chitin
  • plants are strengthened by cellulose
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57
Q

Fungi and animals appear to be more closely related to each other than either is to plants?

A

based on molecular analyses

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58
Q

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi differ from ectomycorrhizal fungi in that

A

arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi extend hyphae through plant cell walls

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59
Q

Choanoflageilates

A
  • single celled eukaryotes
  • similar to the ancestors of animals
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60
Q

Explain Animal Evolution

A

the process by which animals have evolved from single celled organisms to the vast diversity of living animal species seen today

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61
Q

Fossils

A

the remains or traces of past life preserved in rock or sediment

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62
Q

Molecular Clock

A

a technique used to estimate the timing of evolutionary events based on the changes in DNA sequences over time

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63
Q

Ediacaran Biota

A
  • multicellular eukaryotes
  • soft bodied
  • lived during the late Precambrian period
  • around 560 million years ago
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64
Q

Molluscs

A
  • diverse group
  • invertebrate animals
    Ex. snails + clams + octopuses
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65
Q

Cnidarians

A
  • a phylum of animals
    Ex. sea anemones + corals + jellyfish
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66
Q

Porifera

A
  • a phylum of animals includes sponges
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67
Q

Tissues

A

groups of similar cells that perform a specific function

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68
Q

Eumetazoans

A
  • animals that have tissues
  • in contrast to sponges and other basal animals
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69
Q

Gastrovascular Cavity

A

a central digestive compartment found in cnidarians and other animals

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70
Q

Nerve Net

A

a network of neurons found in cnidarians and other animals that lack a centralized brain

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71
Q

Phylogeny

A

the evolutionary history and relationships among groups of organisms

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72
Q

Radial Symmetry

A
  • which the body is wheel or spoke-shaped
  • no obvious front, back, left or right
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73
Q

Bilateral Symmetry

A
  • the body has left and right sides
  • body has a front and a back
  • body has a top and bottom
74
Q

What is an example of an organism that is asymmetrical?

A

sponges

75
Q

What are examples of organisms that are radial symmetrical?

A
  • jellies
  • hydras
76
Q

What are examples of organisms that are bilaterally symmetrical?

A
  • turtles
  • octopus
  • snakes
  • bobcats
77
Q

Features of Deuterostomes

A
  • true coelom/body cavity
  • three tissue layers (ectoderm + mesoderm + endoderm)
  • common pattern of early embryonic development
78
Q

How do the blastopore in deuterostomes develop?

A

first developed into the anus and the mouth forms second

79
Q

What are the three major deuterostome groups?

A
  • echinoderms
  • hemichordates
  • chordates (including vertebrates)
80
Q

What was a major evolution for chordates?

A

major innovations in several chordate lineages allowed them to colonize terrestrial habitats

81
Q

What is chordata comprised of?

A
  • urochordata
  • vertebrata
  • cephalochordate
82
Q

Adult Echinoderm Features

A
  • exhibit radial symmetry
  • unique body plan characterized by an endoskeleton
  • water vascular system
83
Q

Hemichordates (acorn worms) Features

A
  • openings into the throat (pharyngeal gill slits)
  • burrow in marine sands or muds
  • make their living by deposit feeding or suspension feeding
84
Q

Pharyngeal Gill Slits

A

gill slits in the hemichordate group that function in feeding and gas exchange

85
Q

What are the four morphological traits of chordata?

A
  • a notochord
  • pharyngeal gill slits
  • a dorsal hollow nerve cord
  • muscular tail that extends past the anus
86
Q

Vertebrates Features

A
  • chordates
  • have rigid internal skeleton
  • anterior skill that encases a brain
  • well developed circulatory system
87
Q

Echinoderm Features

A
  • marine animals
  • possess a specialized series of fluid-filled canals (water vascular system)
  • calcified endoskeleton provides sites for muscle attachment
  • five sided radial symmetry as adults
  • could exhibit bilateral symmetry in larval stage
  • lack a brain
  • ring of nerve cells around the mouth that extends along the arms
88
Q

What is the water vascular system composed of?

A
  • an esophageal ring
  • five radial canals with extending tube feet
  • feet used for locomotion and food collection
89
Q

What are examples of echinoderm organisms?

A
  • sea urchins
  • sea stars
  • sand dollars
  • sea cucumbers
  • brittle stars
90
Q

Urochordates (Tunicates) Features

A
  • only marine environments
  • most are sessile as adults
  • feed by filtering water through their pharyngeal slits
  • larvae are free swimming tadpole like forms (w/notochord only in tail)
91
Q

Cephalochordates Features

A
  • 25 species of eel like lancelets
  • have a notochord that extends the length of the body
92
Q

What structure innovations occurred during vertebrate diversification?

A
  • jaws
  • amniotic egg
  • bones
93
Q

Devonian Era

A

between 365 and 385 million years ago

94
Q

Cnidarians

A
  • radial symmetry
  • two germ layers
  • gastrovascular cavity
95
Q

What is a transitional fossil?

A
  • have features that are intermediate between ancestors and descendants
  • ## species descend from other species
96
Q

Examples of tetrapods

A
  • birds
  • reptiles
  • mammals
  • amphibians
97
Q

What evidence supports the hypothesis that four-limbed animals came from fish?

A
  • the fossil records show more and more tetrapod-like fish before the appearance of tetrapods about 365 million years ago
  • fish and four limbed animals have very similar embryos
  • DNA analysis shows that fish are tetrapods’ closest relatives
  • both fish and four limbed animals are vertebrates
98
Q

Why have we not found examples in the fossil record of every animal that ever lived on Earth?

A
  • to become a fossil (an animal must remain buried for thousands or millions of years until turns to rock)
  • to become a fossil (an animal must be quickly and completely buried in ash or sediment before it has a chance to decompose)
  • many fossils remain buried
  • fossils can only be found when they are exposed by erosion or excavation
99
Q

What were the tetrapod like characteristics in the Tiktaalik?

A
  • interlocking ribs
  • a neck
  • flat head with eyes on top
100
Q

How did the great transition from fish to tetrapods occur?

A
  • occurred gradually over time
  • products of many small evolutionary steps
  • over millions of years
  • these steps leave behind a series of transitional fossils
  • there are many intermediate forms
101
Q

How do septobasidium fungi obtain nutrients?

A
  • fungal hyphae penetrate a living scale insect’s body
  • absorbing insect nutrients
  • insects body immobilized
  • rest of the insect colony benefits from the shelter the fungus provides
102
Q

How do mycorrhizal fungi (pine tree roots) obtain nutrients?

A
  • associate with roots
  • receive carbohydrates from the pine tree
  • tree receives phosphorus
  • pine tree may die without this association
103
Q

How do lepiotaceae fungi obtain nutrients?

A
  • they cultivate final gardens with leaf cutter ants
  • ants feed and care for the fungi
  • the fungi serve as a food source for the ants
104
Q

How do cordyceps app obtain nutrients?

A
  • spores from these fungi attach to insects
  • the mycelium grow into the insects body and absorb nutrients from the soft tissues
  • the fungus sends up its reproductive structure through the insect’s head
105
Q

How do trichophyton spp obtain nutrients?

A
  • one genus of fungi responsible for athlete’s foot and ringworm and jock itch
  • the fungi colonize the outer skin layer and utilize keratin as their food source
106
Q

How do coprophilous fungi obtain nutrients?

A
  • absorb nutrients from animal feces
107
Q

How do cryphonectria parasitica obtain nutrients?

A
  • absorb nutrients after breaking down the cells of living chestnut trees
  • causing chestnut blight
108
Q

Charophytes

A

are the closet living relatives of plants

109
Q

What evidence provides the best support for the hypothesis that plants evolved from green algae?

A

the chloroplasts of plants and green algae all have both chlorophyll a and b

110
Q

What is the significance of a transient diploid state in fungi?

A

these sexual processes generate genetic variation

111
Q

What describes the interactions between plants and fungi?

A
  • plants are harmed by fungal pathogens
  • plants depend on fungi as mutualistic symbionts
112
Q

What is the origin of fungi?

A
  • multicellularity probably arose independently in fungi and animals
  • DNA sequence data indicated that fungi are more closely related to several groups of unicellular protists
113
Q

What percentage of documented animal extinctions have been of invertebrates?

A

50%

114
Q

What characters of ancestral traits facilitated the colonization of land by an animal group?

A
  • arthropod cuticle
  • exoskeleton of arthropods
  • lungs
  • vertebrate skeleton
115
Q

Which mammal group is characterized by offspring that are born early in development and then finish embryonic development while nursing in their mother’s abdominal pouch?

A

marsupials

116
Q

Clade

A

a group including an ancestral species and all of its descendants

117
Q

How long ago was the first animals that biologists now classify as tetrapods appear in fossil records?

A

365 million years ago

118
Q

What anatomical features do mollusks posses?

A
  • visceral mass
  • foot
  • mantle
  • heart
119
Q

What animals require that eggs have a moist environment to complete development?

A
  • toad
  • caecilian
  • frog
  • salamander
120
Q

What factors contributed to the diversity of the insect group?

A
  • mouthparts specialized for feeding of plants
  • wings and flight
  • the radiation of flowering plants (providing new food sources)
121
Q

What organisms that apart of the osteichthyan group?

A
  • coelacanth
  • birds
  • humans
  • cod
122
Q

Class Osteichthyes

A
  • transitional fish
  • primitive groups of fish
  • bony fish
123
Q

Autotrophs

A

called producers

124
Q

Heterotrophs

A
  • called consumers
  • cannot make their own food
  • obtain organic material by feeding on other organisms or their waste products or remains
125
Q

In a phylogenetic tree, a lineage that diverges from all other members of its group early in the evolutionary history of the group is described as?

A

a basal taxon

126
Q

In a phylogenetic tree that is rooted, a branch point?

A
  • often drawn farthest to the left
  • represents the most recent common ancestor of all taxa in the tree
127
Q

Basal taxon

A
  • a lineage that diverges from all other members of its group early in the history of a group
  • lies on one of the two branches that diverge near the common ancestor of the group
  • lineages represented by these two branches originated at the same point in time
128
Q

A shared ancestral character

A
  • is a character that is not unique to a particular group
  • having originated in an ancestor of that group
129
Q

What is a shared ancestral characters for members of the turtle-leopard group?

A
  • vertebral column
  • four limbs
  • hinged jaws
130
Q

A shared derived character

A

is an evolutionary novelty that is unique to a particular group

131
Q

Amnion

A

the innermost membrane that encloses the embryo of a mammal, bird or reptile

132
Q

Chorion

A

is the outermost extra embryonic membrane of the amniotic egg

133
Q

How do sponges differ from other animals

A
  • they have a simple body structure
  • no true tissues
  • have no symmetry
134
Q

What structures or characteristics are found among the fossils of Ediacaran fauna?

A
  • bilateral symmetry
  • scavenging
  • true tissues
  • filter feeders
135
Q

A coelom is?

A
  • a fluid filled or air filled space
  • located between the digestive tract and outer body wall
136
Q

What apart of the squamate reptiles?

A
  • lizards
  • snakes
137
Q

The basal group in clade Eumetazoa is

A

Ctenophora

138
Q

Major changes in ocean conditions during the early Cambrian period were probably linked most closely to the evolution of?

A

suspension feeding animals

139
Q

How many germ layers do brachiopods posses?

A

three germ layers

140
Q

Invertebrates include

A

all animals without a backbone

141
Q

What are examples of organisms in the basal lineage of vertebrates?

A
  • hagfish
  • lampreys
  • jawless vertebrates
142
Q

Anatomical and molecular evidence suggests that animals may have evolved from a protist similar to a?

A

choanoflagellate

143
Q

Ectoderm

A
  • the germ layer covering the surface of the embryo
  • gives rise to the outer covering of the animal
  • can be the central nervous system (in some phyla)
144
Q

Endoderm

A
  • the innermost germ layer
  • gives rise to the lignin of the digestive tract (or cavity)
145
Q

What organs are associated with the germ layer endoderm?

A
  • lungs
  • liver
146
Q

What germ layer do bilaterally symmetrical organisms have?

A
  • three germ layers
  • mesoderm
147
Q

What germ layer do cnidarians organisms have?

A

two germ layers

148
Q

In bilaterally symmetrical animals the mesoderm forms what?

A
  • muscles
  • digestive tract
  • outer coverings of the animal
149
Q

What germ layer does skin have?

A

ectoderm

150
Q

What germ layer does lungs have?

A

endoderm

151
Q

What germ layer does muscular have?

A

mesoderm

152
Q

What germ layer does the stomach have?

A

endoderm

153
Q

Ediacaran Biota

A
  • an early group of macroscopic organisms
  • soft bodies
  • multicellular eukaryotes
  • fossil range (635 million to 541 million years old)
154
Q

The cross-fostering of California mice in white-footed mice nests provides evidence for?

A

the influence of the early social environment on the expression of aggressive and parental behaviors

155
Q

What is an example of fixed action pattern?

A

a male stickleback attacking a red-bellied fish model

156
Q

The structural polysaccharide of insect cuticle is

A

chitin

157
Q

Pheromones function in?

A
  • regulating sexual development
  • attracting mates over long distances
  • signaling alarm
  • facilitating courtship over short distances
158
Q

Hamilton’s Rule

A
  • provides a way to measure or quantify the effect of altruism on fitness
159
Q

Altruism

A

is behavior that reduces an animal’s individual fitness but increases the fitness of other individuals in the population

160
Q

What are the three key variables in an act of altruism?

A
  • the benefit to the recipient
  • the cost to the altruist
  • the coefficient of relatedness
161
Q

The Benefit (altruism - Hamilton’s Rule)

A

is the average number of extra offspring that the recipient of an altruistic act produces

162
Q

The Cost (altruism - Hamilton’s Rule)

A

is how many fewer offspring the altruist produces

163
Q

The coefficient of Relatedness (altruism - Hamilton’s Rule)

A

equals the fraction genes that on average are shared

164
Q

Natural Selection (altruism)

A

favors altruism when the benefit to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness exceeds the cost to the altruist (rB>C)

165
Q

The role of ATP in muscle contraction is

A

to release the myosin head from actin when it binds to myosin and to provide energy when hydrolyzed to form myosin’s high-energy form

166
Q

Muscle contractions relies on

A

the cycles of thin actin filaments being bound and pulled upon by thick myosin filaments

167
Q

Each myosin molecule has

A
  • a long tail region
  • a globular head region
  • head (jutting to the side) can bind to ATP
168
Q

Cross-bridge

A
  • between the myosin head and the actin filament is the more stable configuration
  • during the pulling phase is also a shift to a more stable configuration
169
Q

Where is energy for muscle contraction stored?

A
  • stored in creatine phosphate
  • which regenerates ATP
  • in glycogen (which is broken down to glucose)
170
Q

Tropomyosin

A
  • a regulatory protein
  • in a muscle fiber at rest
  • covers the myosin-binding sites along the thin filament
  • prevents actin and myosin from interacting until Ca^2+
171
Q

Troponin Complex

A
  • is a set of additional regulatory proteins
  • are bound to the actin strands of thin filaments
  • Ca^2+ binds to the troponin complex
172
Q

Examples of behavior provides evidence of animal cognition?

A
  • a raven pulling up a string to obtain a food item attached to it
  • a biology student using various resources to study for an exam
  • trained honeybees that can discriminate between the concepts of (same) and (different) by matching colors or patterns
  • a chimpanzee stacking up boxes to reach a banana overhead
173
Q

According to the concept of kind selection

A
  • examples of altruism usually involve close relatives and increase an animal’s inclusive fitness
  • the likelihood of an individual acting altruistically toward another is proportional to their relatedness
  • an animal would not be expected to aid its parent before it would help its sibling because it is equally related to both those individuals
174
Q

Kin Selection

A
  • exists where the benefits of altruism outweigh the costs
  • does not apply to mate selection
  • close relatives are less likely to mate
175
Q

What are the costs of kin selection?

A

include those imposed by competition with siblings or other relatives for limited resources

176
Q

A crow that aids its parents in raising its siblings is increasing its

A

inclusive fitness

177
Q

Proximate causes

A
  • are immediate causes of behavior
    Ex. environmental stimuli
178
Q

In a species in which females provide all the needed food and protection for the young

A

males are likely to be promiscuous

179
Q

In social learning

A

an animal learns a behavior by watching others

180
Q

In spatial learning

A
  • an animal forms a cognitive map of its surroundings
  • a representation in the nervous system of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal’s surroundings
181
Q

In imprinting

A

an animal develops an early and long-lasting association with it parent

182
Q

A fixed action pattern

A
  • is a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus
  • are essentially unchangeable
  • once initiated usually carried to completion

BIO 223 Second Half (2 decks)

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