Midterm (Class notes up to and including Feb 10) Flashcards
How is moral development defined in the lecture notes?
As concerning rules and values about what people should do in their interactions with other people.
What are the 3 domains of moral development that guide standards of right and wrong?
- Thoughts
- Feelings
- Behaviours
Piaget came up with 3 stages of moral development, what are they? Around what ages do they occur?
- Heteronomous morality
- Transition
- Autonomous morality
What progression do Piaget’s stages of moral development describe in terms of a child’s thinking?
Children go from believing that rules are absolute and unchangeable to recognizing that they are created by people and have some wiggle room.
What did Lawrence Kohlberg mean by “internalization” in terms of moral development?
Change from behaviour that is externally controlled (consequences) to behaviour controlled by internal standards and principles (what is right).
What are Kohlberg’s 3 levels of moral development?
- Preconventional reasoning
- Conventional reasoning
- Postconventional reasoning
In Kohlberg’s 3 level’s of moral development (each in 2 stages), what main trait characterizes the preconventional reasoning level?
No internalization. Emphasis is on external control either to gain rewards or avoid punishment.
In Kohlberg’s 3 level’s of moral development (each in 2 stages), what main trait characterizes the postconventional reasoning level?
Full internalization. Control of behaviour is fully internal and dependent on interpretations of right and wrong.
In Kohlberg’s 3 level’s of moral development (6 stages), what is stage 1?
Punishment orientation. Children obey rules to avoid punishment.
In Kohlberg’s 3 level’s of moral development (6 stages), what is stage 2?
Naive hedonism. Children conform to rules out of self-interest and potential benefit.
In Kohlberg’s 3 level’s of moral development (6 stages), what is stage 3?
Good person (lol). Individuals want to please others and be identified as a “good person”. Most common for adolescence.
In Kohlberg’s 3 level’s of moral development (6 stages), what is stage 4?
Social order orientation. Concerned with doing one’s duty and maintaining social order. Inflexible in terms of judging intention vs. outcome.
In Kohlberg’s 3 level’s of moral development (6 stages), what is stage 5?
Social contract orientation. Value the will of the majority but believe that individuals principles transcend the law.
In Kohlberg’s 3 level’s of moral development (6 stages), what is stage 6?
Universal ethical principles. Basically Ghandi? Do what is right regardless of others opinions or legal restrictions. May involve personal risk.
How do Kohlberg’s critics argue against his 3-level, 6-stage model?
They say that moral behaviour depends on situation and not just age. Where you are, who is around you, and what the choice is will all impact behaviour.
What are Shweder’s 3 ethical orientations/world views that exist across cultures?
- Ethic of autonomy (Western)
- Ethic of community (collectivism)
- Ethic of divinity (religious)
True or False: Some moral stances are more universally adopted (honesty/legality) while others are more culturally informed (personal/sexual).
True.
Gilligan had some criticisms of Kohlberg’s moral development model. What was the main criticism?
Kohlberg didn’t adequately account for interpersonal relationships and concern for others.
What are the 3 child-rearing techniques that Hoffman describes? Which is recommended?
- Love withdrawal “I’ll leave you”
- Power assertion “I’ll beat you”
- Induction “don’t do that, it wasn’t their fault”
(gee I wonder which one is best?)
How do the class notes define moral identity?
The extent to which someone believes that being moral, and acting morally is a central or essential characteristic of their sense of self.
True or False: people who do not have strong moral identity are more likely to be bullies.
True. (It’s almost like they don’t care if what they do is “right” or not!)
How do the class notes define “moral exemplars”? What examples are there?
People who are outstanding in moral character. Can be aspirational (Ghandi) or more attainable. Peer exemplars are more effective in guiding behaviour.
What is Bandura’s social cognitive theory of moral development?
Bandura emphasizes self-regulation rather than abstract reasoning as key to positive moral development (learning not to hit the bobo doll even when someone else did it).
How can teachers help students increase their moral development?
Service learning. Providing opportunities for students to volunteer in the community and feel like they are having a positive impact.
How do the class notes define “self-concept”?
How one identifies oneself in different elements of character. (I am a good student, a soccer player, bad at art, etc.)
When thinking of self-concept, what does it mean to have “discrepancies and contradictions within the self?”
Multiple roles (depending on context) can lead to contradictions between one’s differentiated selves.
True or False: When teens describe themselves, their answers change depending on their role or context.
True.
True or False: Teens cannot distinguish between their “real self” and their “ideal self”.
False.
What is meant by “social comparison” or “looking-glass self”? How does this relate to teens?
Teens are more likely to evaluate themselves in comparison to others, but will also deny this because it’s seen as socially undesirable.
What is self-esteem?
How much value people place on themselves - how they feel about themselves. Basically feelings of self-worth or importance.
What are the two components of self-esteem?
- Baseline (stable over time)
- Barometric (minor +ve and -ve changes)
How does baseline self-esteem change through childhood, adolescence, and into adulthood?
Higher in childhood, drops sharply in adolescence, then increases slightly into adulthood.
What is the most influential factor in baseline self-esteem for adolescents?
Physical appearance.
How do parents and peers play a role in self-esteem evaluation during childhood and adolescence?
Parental support plays a big role during childhood, but teens are more influenced by their classmate’s support than their parents or even their close friends.
True or False: There is an epidemic of low self-esteem in Western culture.
False. People actually tend to fall above the midpoint of the measurement scale.
True or False: High self-esteem is positively correlated with better grades, interpersonal success, less aggression, and less substance abuse.
False. None of these claims have been validated.
True or False: High self-esteem is positively correlated with increased happiness.
True.
Does increasing self-esteem help correct aggression, mental health struggles, delinquency, or antisocial behaviour? What helps?
No. It would be better to focus on the sources of low self-esteem, such as isolation or abuse, that lead to these other symptoms.
Erik Erikson described many stages of psychosocial development. What 3 stages are we interested in (include age-ranges)?
- Latency (6-12y)
- Puberty/adolescence (12-18y)
- Young adulthood (18-?y)
During Erikson’s “Latency” stage of psychosocial development, what main personal conflict is occurring?
Industry vs. Inferiority. Basically “can I gain the skills I need? Do I have good role models? Do I have help if I need it?”
During Erikson’s “Puberty and Adolescence” stage of psychosocial development, what main personal conflict is occurring?
Identity vs. Identity Confusion. “Who am I? What are my beliefs? What should I do with my life?”
How do the notes describe “identity crisis” as found in Erikson’s “adolescence” stage of psychosocial development?
Tension between the need to explore individuality while desiring respect/validation from family, friends, and society.
What did James Marcia propose regarding Erikson’s 5th stage of psychosocial development?
He split the conflict between identity and identity confusion into 2 factors: Crisis (exploration) and Commitment.
According to James Marcia, how would a teen who was neither exploring nor committing to their identity behave? What did he call this status?
Apathetic, antisocial, depressive, abusing substances, at risk of school failure. Diffusion.
According to James Marcia, how would a teen who was committed to their identity but not exploring behave? What did he call this status?
Close-minded, rigid, authoritarian, resistant to change (can be associated with some religious groups). Foreclosure.
According to James Marcia, how would a teen who was still exploring and actively committing to an identity behave? What did he call this status?
Open-minded but thoughtful and anxious. Moratorium.
According to James Marcia, how would a teen who had explored identities and committed to their identity behave? What did he call this status?
Balanced thinking, strong decision-making, close personal relationships, generative, protected from delinquency. Identity achievement.
What 3 factors support the achievement of adolescent identity formation?
- Confident in parental/peer support
- Self-reflective and adaptive
- Sense of industry, involved in meaningful pursuits
What is meant by the term “ethnocultural identity”?
Self-understanding in terms of culture and ethnicity. Internalization of the meaning of one’s group membership.
True or False: Having a strong ethnocultural identity is correlated to better mental health, achievement, and psychological functioning.
True. The more you feel like you identify with and are supported by your community the better off you’ll be.
How do the logical-reasoning abilities of 15 year-olds compare with those of adults?
Comparable, not so different under certain conditions.
What is the result of educating teens on risks of substance use, reckless driving, and unprotected sex?
Improvement of thinking about these things but little change to teens’ actual behaviour.
What part of the brain is overactive and contributes to decision making in adolescents? What part of the brain does this compete with?
The limbic system with the amygdala (socioemotional). Competes with the prefrontal cortex (rational thought) for control of decision making.
How is decision making in teens impacted by the presence of peers? What parts of the brain are competing?
The socioemotional network (limbic system) out-competes the cognitive-control network (prefrontal cortex) to increase risk-taking for perceived reward.
What effect do the hormonal changes of puberty have on the socioemotional network?
Remodelled in early adolescence by puberty, heightened sensitivity to social and emotional stimuli and reward processing.
What type of behaviour is the cognitive control network (prefrontal cortex) responsible for?
Rational thought, impulse control, executive functioning.
When/how does the cognitive control network mature?
During adolescence and into young adulthood, dependent on puberty.
How does the presence of peers influence teen risk-taking?
Big increase in risk-taking as the limbic system supresses the prefrontal cortex’s ability to control behaviour.
How does the presence of peers influence adult risk-taking?
It doesn’t (apparently).
When does the vulnerability to peer pressure (peer presence) peak?
Mid-adolescence.
What advice does Steinberg provide to prevent unhealthy risk-taking in adolescence?
Limit opportunities for emotionally-charged judgement. (graduated licensing, minimum drinking/smoking age, etc.)
What two types of social thinking did Elkind (1976) divide adolescent egocentrism into?
- Imaginary audience (everyone is always watching me)
- Personal fable (I’m unique and no one knows how I feel)
What is the “Optimistic bias” in terms of adolescent egocentrism?
Related to the personal fable, it is the belief that accidents and misfortune are more likely to happen to others. “That could never happen to me”
True or False: Adults have a stronger sense of optimistic bias.
False. Teens have more of this idea that “It’ll never happen to me” or “I’m not the kind of person who that happens to”. (addiction, accidents, etc)
How many neurons does the brain have? How many connections do these form?
Around 86 Billion neurons resulting in ~1 quadrillion (1000 trillion) connections. (Wow!)
How fast can information travel in the brain?
Up to 268 miles per hour!
What is meant by the term “synaptic pruning”? At what stage of a child’s life does this mainly happen? When else?
Neuronal connections which were formed during fetal development disappear if they aren’t used early or often enough. Mostly occurring from age 0.5-5y but also just before puberty.
Why is synaptic pruning important for neurological development?
For the brain’s speed of processing. Prioritizing higher-yield connections leads to faster processing time and better/more accurate recall.
What forces influence synaptic pruning in the brain?
Genetic and environmental factors.
How does the morphology of the brain change from childhood to adulthood?
The brain doubles in size and gains more surface area through folds and crevices.
What area of the brain does not get fully myelinated until ~30+ years into life?
The prefrontal cortex and related regions.
What are the behavioural and cognitive functions of the prefrontal cortex?
Any of:
- Behavioural control
- Working memory
- Organization
- Strategizing and planning
- Prioritizing
- Decision-making
- Empathy
- Insight
- Sensitivity to feedback
What is myelination with regards to neurons? What is its purpose?
A type of cell which wraps around the axon of a neuron to increase conduction speed.
What functions is dopamine critical for in the brain?
Any of:
- Focusing attention (for decision-making)
- Mature judgement
- Impulse control
- Response to reward
- Pursuit of goals
What effect does substance exposure have on teen brain development?
Can change or delay development, affecting the brain’s ability to experience and learn from reward.
What part of the brain do adults use when interpreting another’s emotions? What about teens? What does this mean?
Adults: prefrontal cortex
Teens: amygdala
Teens were more likely to incorrectly interpret fear, danger, and threat because of the part of their brains that they were using.
How are teens likely to act compared to adults? (think in terms of what areas of the brain are most/lest developed?
More impulsive, risky, and emotionally than adults because they use their limbic system predominantly while adults rely on the prefrontal cortex.
In brief, what is the endocrine system?
Hormonal control of bodily functions.
What 3 main body parts make up the endocrine system and are important for adolescent development?
- Hyphothalamus
- Pituitary
- Gonads
The H-P-G axis (feedback loop)
What hormones increase during puberty for both males and females?
Estradiol and testosterone (males and females have both).
What is the relative level of testosterone in males and females during puberty compared with before puberty?
Males: 20 times greater
Females: double
What is the relative level of estradiol in males and females during puberty compared with before puberty?
Males: double
Females: 8 times greater
At what age does the “growth spurt” in puberty generally start? Is it the same for males and females? When does it end?
Males: ~12y to ~18y
Females: ~10y to ~16y
Do all parts of the adolescent body grow at the same rate during puberty? What is the term for this phenomena?
Called “asynchronicity”. Parts of the body develop at different rates, with the extremities often growing first.
For females, what factors contribute to generally earlier pubertal timing?
Any of:
- Good nutrition/health
- Higher-conflict homes
- Physical/sexual abuse
- Economic instability
- Absent fathers or stepfather
For females, what factors contribute to generally later pubertal timing?
Any of:
- Malnutrition
- Regular, intense physical activity
- Early alcohol consumption
- Lower-conflict homes
- Economic stability
- 2 parent homes
What is the average timing for semenarche in Canada?
Around 12.5 to 13.5 years old.
What are the first signs of puberty and adult development in females?
Any of:
- Breast enlargement (thelarche)
- Pubic hair growth
- Body odour
- Menarche 2-3y AFTER breast enlargement
- Fat deposition around hips/thighs
What are the first signs of puberty and adult development in males?
Any of:
- Testes enlargement (gonadarche)
- Pubic hair growth
- Penis/scrotum growth 1y AFTER testes
- Increased muscularity
What are some of the effects on adolescent females who mature early?
Mostly negative. Any of:
- Anxiety/depression
- Earlier sexual activity + all the stuff that comes with hanging out with older teens
- Shorter with more body fat
- Lower self-esteem
What are some of the effects on adolescent females who mature late?
Some negative, but maybe not as bad? Any of:
- Later sexual activity + other stuff
- Taller with less body fat
- More positive body image
- Still anxiety and depression though
What are some of the effects on adolescent males who mature early?
Mostly positive. Any of:
- Leadership/maturity
- Taller and more athletic
- Positive self-image
- Less problems with parents
- But still earlier sex and -ve behaviours
What are some of the effects on adolescent males who mature late?
Any of:
- Lower self-image
- Increased mental health problems
- Less problems at school
- More creative as adults
- Later sex and -ve behaviours
What causes the positive and negative effects associated with early or late maturation in teens? What 4 hypotheses describe this?
- Deviance: being different is stressful and bad for teens
- Stage termination: didn’t do all the child stuff so now miss out on that development
- Adult resemblance: look like an adult, get treated like an adult. Good and bad.
- Hormonal exposure: endocrine effect on developing brain influencing mental health.
Bodies that differ from standard male or female anatomy occur in what percentage of births?
Around 1% of births are intersex.
What does the term “intersex” mean? (now called Disorders of Sex Development)
A general term denoting a spectrum of body development that doesn’t fit the male/female binary.
What are two examples of conditions that can lead to intersex anatomy that are the result of chromosomal abnormality?
- Turner’s Syndrome (XO)
- Klinefelter (XXY)
What are some examples of conditions which can cause sexual anatomy to differ from standard male or female?
Any of:
- Congenital adrenal hyperdisplasia (CAH)
- Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
- Impaired testosterone production/function
- Chromosomal disorders
- and many mooooooooore
What are 3 common health/lifestyle issues for North American teens?
- Sleep deprivation
- Malnutrition (quantity or quality)
- Decreased physical activity
Who did the class notes describe as being “The Father of Adolescence”?
Stanley Hall.
How did Stanley Hall describe the period of adolescence?
The period of transition from beast-like to civilized; biologically constrained to be in “storm and stress”.
In late 20th century Canada, how did education for adolescents change?
Shift to compulsory education for all children and decrease in child-labour. Teens who weren’t yet mature enough for the workforce now segregated in their own institution (school lol).
What does the inventionist view contend regarding adolescence?
That compulsory education and child labour laws removed young adults from the adult world and created adolescents. That this group would otherwise not exist, not just in name but also behaviour.
True or False: adults often portray adolescents as more radical than they were at that age.
True.
What is meant by the term “adolescent generalization gap”?
Widespread generalizations about adolescents based on a limited, highly visible group or subset of adolescents.
What are the 5 “C’s” of positive youth development?
- Competence
- Confidence
- Compassion
- Connection
- Character
Leads to 6th: contribution
