Final (Class Notes Families -> Intimacy) Flashcards
What is meant by “reciprocal socialization” with regards to families?
Bi-directional process by which parents and children influence each other.
True or False: Happily married parents are less warm, responsive, and sensitive towards their children.
False, the opposite.
What is meant by a “dyadic relationship”?
Individuals influence individuals, whose relationship influences 3rd members as well. (idk kinda confusing)
What is meant by a “phase transition” with regards to families?
A breakdown of old patterns as new patterns emerge. Ex: parenting strategies for children changing to strategies for teens.
What are the 2 “Dimensions” through which parenting is classified?
- Responsiveness (acceptance/responsiveness)
- Demandingness (Demandingness/control)
A parent who is highly responsive is more likely to _________.
Give praise, warmth, affection & encouragement. Attend to wants & concerns. Give criticism within loving context.
A parent who is highly demanding is more likely to _________.
Set rules and regulations. Keep close watch over their children.
Given the two dimensions of parenting - responsiveness and demandingness - what are the 4 “parenting styles”?
- Authoritative (responsive and demanding)
- Authoritarian (unresponsive and demanding)
- Indifferent (unresponsive and not demanding)
- Indulgent (responsive and not demanding)
A parent who is authoritative is likely to exhibit which characteristics?
Encourage independence, listen, set limits, be attentive, be accepting, and monitor behaviour.
What is the likely outcome on adolescents of authoritative parents?
They will do better in school, be more independent and self-efficacious, less anxious, less depressed, less delinquent, socially competent and responsible.
A parent who is authoritarian is likely to exhibit which characteristics?
Be restrictive and punitive, impose strict limits, exert high control with limited affection (yikes).
What is the likely outcome on adolescents of authoritarian parents?
They will be passive and dependent on instruction, have weak self-esteem and communication skills, and be less self-assured.
A parent who is indifferent is likely to exhibit which characteristics?
They will be uninvolved in their child’s life, will set no boundaries, and will not monitor behaviour.
What is the likely outcome on adolescents of indifferent parents?
They will be disinterested in school or work and more likely to engage in delinquent behaviour due to poor self-control.
A parent who is indulgent is likely to exhibit which characteristics?
Warm and responsive, highly involved, but sets few boundaries or expectations and treats their child as an equal.
What is the likely outcome on adolescents of indulgent parents?
They will be immature and lacking in self-control, irresponsible, highly influenced by friends and peers, and entitled.
How do the slides describe “traditional parenting”?
Emphasis on parental authority but with lots of warmth.
How do the slides describe “helicopter parenting”?
Overbearing and micromanaging parenting style.
What are the effects of “helicopter parenting” on adolescents?
Any of:
- Poor mental health
- Substance abuse
- low self-efficacy/dependency on parents
- low self-esteem
- no coping skills
- entitlement
In what ways can parents be likened to managers? Is this a bad thing?
Parents often:
- Find information
- Make contacts
- Help structure choices
- Provide guidance
How can parental “management” affect adolescents?
Improved attendance and achievement at school and positive social adjustment.
What are the “5 Cs” of positive youth development?
- Competence
- Confidence
- Connection
- Character
- Caring/Compassion
The “5 Cs” of positive youth development are said to produce a 6th, which is ____________.
Contribution
What do youth need in order to foster the “5 Cs” of positive youth development (3 things)?
- Positive and sustained adult relationships
- Participation in life-skill building activities
- Opportunities to be a leader in various contexts
How do the slides define autonomy?
An ability to act independently and a willingness to take responsibility.
How do the slides define emotional autonomy?
A capacity to relinquish childlike dependency on parents.
How do the slides define behavioural autonomy?
The ability to make one’s own decisions and take responsibility for one’s actions.
How do adolescents gain autonomy?
Through appropriate adult interactions in which adults relinquish control in areas where they trust adolescent judgement.
In terms of the “modes of parental control”, what is meant by “behavioural control”?
Setting rules, limits, or restrictions on child’s activities.
What are the 2 “primary modes of parental control”?
- Behavioural control
- Psychological control
In terms of the “modes of parental control”, what is meant by “psychological control”?
Influence child’s thoughts and feelings of attachment to the parent through love-withdrawal, guilt, and shame (yikes).
True or False: The behavioural mode of parental control is more likely to result in negative outcomes for the adolescent than the psychological mode.
False. The behavioural mode is more interested and responsive.
True or False: Adolescents are more likely to engage in conflicts with their fathers than their mothers.
False. Mothers are more involved in kids’ lives and dads are too busy going to the store to get milk.
True or False: Parent teen conflict is exaggerated in popular media.
True. Most teens like spending time with their parents and think highly of them.
True or False: High-conflict families often had very little conflict prior to adolescence, when suddenly conflict spiraled out of control.
False. Families who fight their teens probably fought their kids too.
What is meant by the term “attachment” with regards to children and their parents?
A bond as a result of long-term relationship that is characterized by interdependence, mutual feelings, and emotional ties.
Children that had secure attachment to their parents as infants are most likely to have what characteristics in adolescence?
Increased: social competence, self-esteem, emotional adjustment, physical health, autonomy, positive relationships.
Decreased: delinquency
Children that had insecure dismissing/avoidant attachment to their parents as infants are most likely to have what characteristics in adolescence?
Violent/aggressive behaviour and less influenced by parents.
Children that had insecure preoccupied/ambivalent attachment to their parents as infants are most likely to have what characteristics in adolescence?
High degree of attachment-seeking behaviour, angry feelings, and social withdrawal.
Children that had insecure unresolved/disorganized attachment to their parents as infants are most likely to have what characteristics in adolescence?
High level of fear and disorientation while being prone to behavioural disorders.
What percentage of marriages in Canada end in divorce?
38%
What percentage of children living in single-mother families are living in poverty? What percentage of those in single-father families?
Single-mother: 26% in poverty
Single-father: 12.87% in poverty
Adolescents from divorced families are more likely to have:
Any of:
- Academic problems
- Externalized problems (delinquency)
- Internalized problems (mental illness)
- Relationship problems
- Social problems
True or False: The level of hostility and bitterness between divorcing/divorced parents has no effect on a child’s ability to adjust to the new circumstance.
False. If you suck at conflict they will also suck at coping with conflict.
What factors can help children adjust to divorce?
Any of:
- Minimizing actual life changes
- Avoiding hostility
- Emotionally supportive parents
- Older age of child during parental divorce
True or False: Child adjustment to divorce takes longer than child adjustment to new step-parent.
False. New step-parents take longer to adjust to (approx 5 years compared to 2 for divorce).
True or False: Children of LGBTQ+ parents have similar outcomes to those of heterosexual parents given the same parental disposition.
True. Aaaaaand they’re no more likely to be LGBTQ+ than children of heterosexual parents.
How does the WHO define gender?
The characteristics of women, men, girls, and boys that are socially constructed.
True or False: gender is consistent throughout societies and ethnicities.
False. As a social construct, gender is subject to all kinds of social, ethnic, and chronological pressures.
How is “gender identity” currently defined?
Each person’s internal and individual experience of gender.
True or False: Gender identity and sexual identity are the same.
False. They MAY be the same, but this isn’t a requirement obvs.
How do the slides define the term “gender role”?
A contextually variable set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should look, act, think, and feel.
How do the slides define the term “gender typing”?
The process by which children come to take on the gender roles expected in their society.
What two types of bias arise from using a binary gender system in research?
- Alpha bias: overestimates differences
- Beta bias: underestimates differences
What is meant by the “biological approach” to gender?
Emphasizes prenatal hormone exposure as being instrumental in later gender typing.
True or False: twin studies showed that genetic factors accounted for a larger part of gender behaviour than environmental factors.
False. Genetic factors do play a part, but not as significant as environmental factors.
When exposed to higher levels of prenatal testosterone, females showed ________ (3 things).
- Greater involvement in traditionally male activities at 3.5 years old
- Sexual interest in females
- Poorer social relationships
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia? What effect does it have on male development? What about female development?
Genetic condition causing overproduction of androgens. No effect in males but causes females to develop in a more masculine direction (sexual interest in women, preference for male activities, etc.)
Around what age does gender socialization begin for children?
Can happen at birth! People calling newborns “strong” if they think that pink blob is a boy or “beautiful” if they think it’s a girl.
How do the slides define socialization?
The process through which children acquire the attitudes, beliefs, behaviours, and skills that others in their lives consider appropriate.
How do the slides define the term “gender policing”?
Direct and indirect praise or criticism for behaviour that is gender appropriate or inappropriate.
In his social cognitive theory of gender, how does Bandura theorize that children learn about gender?
Through observation of males and females and the consequences they observe for various behaviours. Also, how successful they think they will be as one gender or another.
What is meant by the “cognitive approaches” to gender?
Emphasize the processes of thinking and understanding that are critical to the development of gender roles.
What are the 2 well-known theories for cognitive approaches to gender?
- Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender
- Gender Schema Theory
How does the Cognitive-Developmental theory of gender attempt to explain gender typing in children?
Children’s changing understanding of gender affects their gender-related behaviour.
What milestone ages are important for the Cognitive-Developmental theory of gender? What occurs at these ages?
2-3y: children label themselves as boys or girls
6-7y: children understand that gender is stable over time and consistent despite appearance changes
How does the gender schema theory attempt to explain gender typing in children?
Gender emerges as individuals develop schemas of what is gender appropriate or inappropriate in their culture.
What 3 ideas are critical to the gender schema theory of gender typing?
- Children prefer their own group and think of it as better
- Children pay more attention to info about their own gender and remember it better
- Children are more likely to recall gender-stereotypic information
True or False: during adolescence, there is increased focus on the sexual aspects of adolescents’ gender behaviour.
True, they’re loaded up with hormones.
True or False: During adolescence, there is increased socialization pressures to conform to more traditional/attractive masculine and feminine roles.
True. Kids don’t want to stand out.
How do the slides define people who are transgender?
A person who has the anatomy of one sex but the gender identity traditionally associated with another.
How do the slides define the term “gender dysphoria” in terms of individuals who are transgender?
Psychological distress that results from an incongruence between one’s sex assigned at birth and one’s gender identity.
The slides list some ways in which schools are biased against boys. Name a few of them.
Any of:
- Focus on compliance
- Female elementary teachers
- Greater number of learning problems
- More criticized
- Ignore academic problems in LA
- Stereotype boys’ behaviour as problematic
- Higher dropout rate
The slides list some ways in which schools are biased against girls. Name a few of them.
Any of:
- Less assertiveness
- Less attention socially and academically
- Less instruction and help
- Less confident about post-secondary success
- Lower self-esteem by middle school
- Fewer career options
- Less likely to pursue STEM
True or False: many researchers believe cognitive differences between males and females have been exaggerated.
True. It’s been impossible to control for extenuating factors.
What is meant by the term “stereotype threat” and how can it contribute to cognitive differences between males and females?
Individuals feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their group. The resulting anxiety actually causes them to conform to those stereotypes they were trying to avoid. Happens when testing for cognitive skills and confounds the results.
Performance on what task is basically the only way in which male and female cognitive ability differs?
Visuospatial skills like mental object rotation. This can be taught though! It’s probably just due to the ways male and female play differs in childhood?
True or False: Females outperform males in high-school reading and writing assessments.
True.
True or False: Males are more likely than females to suck at school and drop out.
True. More likely to be in academic bottom half of classes.
True or False: Males show overall greater academic interest and achievement.
False, females do.
What physiological differences are there between the hypothalamus and the parietal lobes of males and females.
Part of Hypothalamus to do with sexy stuff is bigger in men, so is the parietal lobe.
True or False: Women have smaller brains than men do.
True, but also smaller skulls and more surface area because they have more folds? So women have more brain in less space? Seems OP tbh.
Are stereotypes of females expressing a greater range of emotion and males expressing more anger true across the entire lifespan?
Nope, no significant differences before adolescence. Maybe indicates that these are learned behaviours?
True or False: females and males show similar levels of verbal aggression.
True. Dudes are more physically aggressive though (maybe modelling?).
True or False: parents often allow their female children more independence than their male children.
False, gotta keep a close eye on those girls while boys do whatever.
True or False: achievement expectations typically differ for male and female children.
True. More emphasis on STEM achievement for male children, more likely to use technical language with boys.
True or False: Parents spend more time with their children of the same gender.
True. Perhaps they feel they’re more relatable? The slides don’t say why.
True or False: Children with older siblings are likely to become more like their older sibling in terms of gender role and activity preference, regardless of gender.
True. Boys with older sisters will lean towards traditionally female activities while the opposite will be true of girls with older brothers.
True or False: children with an older sibling of the other gender hold less stereotypical views on gender compared to those with same-gender older siblings.
True. Straight off ‘dem slides.
Does it matter whether children who don’t conform to gender roles are excluded from peer activities? Why/Why not?
It does! Regardless of conformity, peer inclusivity is powerful for shaping later social and psychological outcomes.
True or False: Girls judge nonconformity of gender roles more harshly than boys.
False, boys are way more homophobic from an early age.
Females engage in more prosocial and helping behaviour. During which circumstance are males most likely to help others?
When perceived danger is present and when they feel competent to help.
True or False: early adolescence is a critical juncture for all teens, but has greater impact on females than males.
True, greater decrease in self-esteem for females.
How do the slides define the term “androgyny” as it relates to an individual?
A person having a high degree of both feminine and masculine traits.
How do the slides define what constitutes a peer for an adolescent?
Someone who is at about the same level in age, social status, maturity, or level of functioning.
Who is the most common behaviour model for a child? What about an adolescent?
Children look up to their parents while adolescents look to their peers.
Teens in North America spend _ to _ times as many waking hours with their peers as with their family.
2 to 4 times!
By age 18, adolescents spend what percentage of their waking time away from family members?
86%
How does degree of parental conformity change from childhood through adolescence.
Declines slowly. Teens want to distance themselves from their parents and establish their own identity (for better or worse).
How does the authoritative parenting style influence an adolescent’s family-peer linkage?
Better peer relationships and greater parental connection.
How does the authoritarian parenting style influence an adolescent’s family-peer linkage?
Extreme peer orientation, decreased influence of parents.
How do the indifferent or indulgent parenting styles influence an adolescent’s family-peer linkage?
Teens turn to their peers for connection and support, feel that their parents are either apathetic or pathetic.
What connections can be drawn between an adolescent’s level of parental attachment and their likely attachment to peers.
Secure attachment to parents = secure attachment to peers. The opposite is also true.
True or False: a teen’s level of attachment to parents will always determine their likely course in life.
False. It may predispose them to certain outcomes but there are too many potentially confounding factors to make judgements with any certainty.
True or False: There is more variety between teens and other teens than there is between teens and parents.
True, much greater degree of in-group variety.
How do the slides define the term “reference group” with regards to adolescents and peers?
A set of people that someone looks to for information about what to do and what constitutes “doing well”, as well as support and evaluation.
With regards to peers, reference groups can be both _________ and ___________.
- Normative (expectations, actions, values)
- Comparative (in relation to others)
How do the slides define the term “social comparison”?
Comparing one’s status or performance to others, mostly within a reference group.
What opinion does Bandura maintain about reference groups? What makes a reference group most powerful?
That they model behaviour! They are most powerful when they are similar to us, have social power over us, and have higher status within a group.
True or False: group belonging can protect teens against delinquency, mental illness, and isolation.
True! Teens are driven to be part of a group because it’s better for them!
Around what ages does the pressure to conform to peers peak in adolescents?
Ages 12-15 (grade 6-9).
Which adolescents are most likely to conform to peers?
Any of:
- uncertain about social identity
- experiencing life transitions
- with someone of higher social status or power
In what ways can peer relationships be detrimental to teens?
Any of:
- Rejection can lead to hostility/isolation
- Peers can model undesirable behaviour if deviant or antisocial
What is meant by the term “sociometric status” with regards to adolescents and peers?
The extent to which an individual is liked or disliked, as determined by a survey/vote within a social group. (so messy!)
Why can sociometric techniques be messy af?
Asking kids to name 3 others they like and 3 they don’t like? And then keep these a secret??? Are you kidding?????
In terms of sociometric status, what did an “average” ranking mean?
A child received an average number of +ve and -ve mentions by peers.
In terms of sociometric status, what did a “neglected” ranking mean?
A child received few +ve and no -ve mentions by peers.
In terms of sociometric status, what did a “controversial” ranking mean?
A child received lots of +ve and -ve mentions by peers.
How can sociometric methods of ranking peer popularity be inaccurate?
They assume that the person that gets the most +ve and least -ve mentions is the most popular, but teens disagree when asked to rank by “perceived popularity”.
What kinds of girls do teens perceive as being the most popular?
Girls who are rich and pretty but also act like a turd and people hate them.
What kinds of guys do teens perceive as being the most popular?
Two types:
- Model: Athletic, cool, leader, cooperative, studious, unaggressive
- Tough: Also athletic and cool, but disruptive and aggressive
How do the slides define the term “relational aggression”?
Intentionally harming someone’s personal and social relationship (through ridicule, exclusion, gossip, etc.).
In terms of sociometric status, what did a “rejected” ranking mean?
A child receives barely any +ve mentions and lots of -ve mentions.
Teens who are ranked as “rejected” according to sociometric measures are likely to fall into which 2 categories?
- Rejected-aggressive: hostile, anti-social, disruptive
- Rejected-withdrawn: timid, socially immature, shy
How does aggression towards peers in elementary school relate to likelihood of delinquent behaviour and dropping out of school in adolescence?
The best predictor! If you suck early on you’ll probably suck later too unless someone intervenes!
Teen boys who are ranked as “rejected-aggressive” according to sociometric measures have similarities with which category of learning exceptionality?
ADHD! They both are impulsive and have poor attention-control, are emotionally reactive, and have bad social and friendship skills! Fun!
How do the slides describe the hostile-attribution bias?
The tendency to assume hostile intent in an ambiguous action and to respond with hostility.
True or False: rejected-aggressive adolescents are more likely to respond with hostility and spend time around other rejected-aggressive adolescents.
True! They will be mad over nothing and get reinforced by others who are also mad over nothing!
If generally teens increase their understanding of others as they age, teen boys with peer adjustment difficulties are likely to follow what trends as they age?
Any of:
- Less likely to problem-solve or evaluate their behaviour
- less likely to plan ahead
- More likely to see others’ actions as hostile
- More likely to respond reactively and without thought
- Less able to regulate emotion
True or False: sociometric status is stable over time.
True. The popular stay popular, the neglected stay neglected, and the rejected stay rejected.
Why is improving the behaviour of a rejected adolescent not always enough to improve their peers’ opinion of them?
Because they can become stigmatized, especially if they sucked for a long time.
True or False: researchers have found it is easier to improve the social skills of teens than it is to improve the social skills of children 10 and under.
False, the opposite is actually true.
Once we’ve helped a rejected student change their behaviour, how else can we help them to become included?
Change the minds of peers through cooperative learning.
What 5 techniques make up the conglomerate strategy (coaching) for social skill improvement?
- Demonstration
- Discussion
- Modelling
- Reasoning
- Reinforcement
How many teens report physical violence in their intimate relationships?
1 in 5 (yikes!)
What teen demographic is most susceptible to violent media influences regarding violent behaviour in relationships?
Minority youth due to their desire to fit in, as well as youth who consume a lot of violent media.
What is meant by the term “psychological dating violence”?
Actions meant to control or make a partner insecure, causing psychological harm.
How may rejection-sensitive teens behave in romantic relationships?
Any of:
- Carry expectation of rejection
- Avoid commitment
- Anxiety/hostility in relationships
- Be coercive or overly compliant
- many mooooore
Why might it be more difficult for teens to experience a breakup?
Teens attribute much of their self-esteem and social status to their relationship, and can feel like they are losing these in a breakup.
Why are breakups an important part of teen growth?
Just like doing anything I guess? Next time you’ll be more self-asssured and know what to look for in a partner?
How do girls and boys differ in terms of how they get into same-sex relationships, according to the slides?
Girls develop close friendship then romantic partnership. Dudes hook up and then decide to be friends/partners.
What type of research technique seems to make teens more willing to accurately report sexual behaviours?
Listening to a recording and then typing answers into a computer, called Computer Assisted Self Interview (CASI).
What factors are shown to lower the age at which teens engage in sexual behaviours?
Any of:
- Poverty
- Academic underachievement
- Family structure
- Substance misuse
- Peer influence
- Early puberty
What factors are shown to increase the age at which teens engage in sexual behaviours?
- Parental disapproval
- Sex Ed (NOT abstinence-only)
