midterm Flashcards
1
Q
Archivolt:
A
An ornamental molding around an arched wall opening.
2
Q
Arian controversy
A
The dispute as to whether Jesus was divine and unified with God the Father and the Holy Spirit (the Orthodox Christian view), or whether Jesus, as the created Son, was distinct from the eternal God the Father (the view held by Arius).
3
Q
Atrium:
A
a courtyard, especially s surrounded by a colonnaded arcade
barrel vault: A continuous arch or vault that looks like a semicircle in cross- section (also called a tunnel vault)
4
Q
chi-rho monogram
A
A symbol for Christ, consisting of the first two letters of the Greek word christos.
5
Q
cloister
A
A covered walkway, particularly in a monastery, convent, college, or church, with a wall on one side and a row of columns open to a quadrangle on the other side.
6
Q
coffering
A
A coffer in architecture is a series of sunken panels in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit or vault.
7
Q
Council of Nicaea
A
The Council of Nicaea was the first council in the history of the Christian church that was intended to address the entire body of believers.
8
Q
dactylic hexameter:
A
A poetic meter or rhythm consisting of six feet or units of dactyls. A dactyl contains three syllables, the first of which is long is stressed, and the following two of which are shorter or unstressed.
9
Q
Epicurean:
A
A school of philosophy that argues that the world consists of chance combinations of atoms and that happiness or the avoidance of pain and anxiety are the greatest goods, although pleasure is to be enjoyed in moderation.
10
Q
Epithet:
A
A descriptive word or phrase that refers to a particular quality in a person or thing.
11
Q
Feudalism:
A
The dominant social system in medieval Europe from the ninth through the 15th centuries, in which vassals were granted fiefs—estates or property—by their lords and were required to serve under their lords in the event of war.
12
Q
Gothic
A
A style of architecture that flourished during the High and Late Middle Ages, characterized by pointed arches, rib vaulting, and a visual dissolving of stone walls to admit light into a building.
13
Q
Icon:
A
symbol or image
14
Q
Iconoclastic controversy:
A
he dispute as to whether or not it was blasphemous to use images or icons in art, based on the second of the Ten Commandments, in which God forbids the creation and worship of “graven images” the Greek word iconoclasm translates as “image breaking” and refers to the destruction of religious icons within a culture.
15
Q
Liturgy:
A
The arrangement of the elements or parts of a religious service
16
Q
lyric poetry:
A
A form or genre of poetry characterized by the expression of emotions and personal feelings; so called because such poetry was sung to a lyre.
17
Q
monasticism:
A
The style of life under religious vows in which a community of people shares an ascetic existence in order to focus on spiritual pursuits.
18
Q
Mosaic
A
An image created by assembling small pieces of materials such as glass, stone, or tile.
19
Q
Neo-Platonism:
A
The school of philosophy that develops Plato’s concept of the One, the source of all life, which is transcendent and unknowable through reasoning.
20
Q
Oculus:
A
A circular opening in a dome that allows the entry of natural light from above.
21
Q
Pax Romana
A
the peace which existed between nationalities within the Roman Empire.
22
Q
pendentives
A
A triangular section of vaulting between the rim of a dome and each adjacent pair of the arches that support it.
23
Q
Relic:
A
In this usage, a part of a holy person’s body or belongings used as an object of reverence.
24
Q
Romanesque
A
Referring to a style of European art and architecture from the ninth through 12th centuries, descended from Roman styles; in architecture, characterized by heavy masonry, round arches, and relatively simple ornamentation.
25
Rule fo St Benedic
The Rule of Saint Benedict (Latin: Regula Sancti Benedicti) is a book of precepts written in 516 by Benedict of Nursia ( c. AD 480–550) for monks living communally under the authority of an abbot
26
Sarcophagus
A coffin; usually cut or carved from stone, although Etruscan sarcophagi were made of terra- cotta (plural sarcophagus
27
Scriptorium:
A room dedicated to writing.
28
Stoic:
A school of philosophy with the view that the universe was ordered by the gods and that people could not change the course of events; people could, however, psychologically distance themselves from tragic events by controlling their attitudes toward them.
29
tesserae:
Small pieces of stone, glass, or ceramic tile used in the creation of a mosaic (singular tessera).
30
triumphal arch:
A monumental structure that takes the form of one or more arched passageways, often spanning a road, and commemorates military victory.
31
Tympanum:
A semicircular space above the doors of a cathedral.
32
Vulgate
A late-fourth-century version of the Bible, largely translated into Latin by Saint Jerome.
33
verism
The style of portraiture favored during the Roman Republic in which the subjects were portrayed in a super-realistic likeness; from the Latin word for true.
34
barrel vault
A continuous arch or vault that looks like a semicircle in cross-section
35
oculus
A circular opening in a dome that allows the entry of natural light from above
36
Triumphal arch
A monumental structure that takes the form of one or more arches passageways, often
37
Dome
a vaulted roof usually having a circular base and shaped like half a sphere
38
Sarcophagus
a coffin
39
What was the function of the Pont du Gard?
It was an aqueduct
40
What was the significance of the Battle of Actium (31 BC) in the history of the Roman Republic?
Octavian became supreme ruler of Rome.
41
Which emperor established Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire?
Emperor Constantine
42
According to legend, which of the following was NOT responsible for the founding of Rome?
juno
43
What event marks the end of the Roman Republic?
the Battle of Actium
44
The principal building material of the Pantheon is
concrete
45
What architectural detail do we find on the Pantheon's roof?
the oculus
46
What is depicted on Trajan's Column?
the story of the Dacian War
47
Which monument portrays Rome's campaign in the Dacian Wars in a spiral band of low-relief sculptures?
Trajan's Column
48
What was the name of the large open space in the center of Rome used for meetings of the Senate and the assemblies of the people?
Forum
49
Portrait sculptures during the Roman Republic were
extremely realistic.
50
Ari Pacis
Ara Pacis signifies both pride and fertility. This monument displays pride through the telling of its history and relief carvings of former influential rulers. Augustus who commissioned this valued specific leadership their land had known. Overall, this emphasis on their land's development and civilization through leadership indicates a sense of pride in their land and its inhabitants. This monument displays reliefs of women and children and emphasizes their bodies which can be interpreted as an appreciation and valuing of women's reproductional capabilities. In one of the relief's, a woman is surrounded by infants which shows the value placed on human life and fertility
51
What elements of the Temple of Portunus did the Romans borrow from the Etruscans?
Elevated podium and columned arches
52
Etruscan influence can be seen in Roman architecture through
A recessed porch entry
53
What city was the center of imperial life in the Roman Empire in the fifth and early sixth centuries?
Constantinople
54
What are the two main periods of Roman history called?
Republican and Imperial Rome
55
Who was the first emperor of the Roman Empire?
Augustus
56
What architectural detail do we find on the pantheon's roof??
The oculus
57
Which of these is NOT an effect of the construction of aqueducts?
The restriction of resources to enemies
58
"Carpe Diem"
Horace
59
"The Tale of Pyramus and Thisbe"
Ovid
60
Love has come at last
Suplicia
61
Satire III
Juvenal
62
What is the name of the priest that warns the Trojans of the deception of the wooden horse?
laocoon
63
The storm at the beginning of the story leaves Aeneas and his crew on the coast of
Libya
64
Who is the divine messenger who tells Aeneas he must leave Carthage?
Mercury
65
What convinces Aeneas to flee with his family instead of leaving them to fight the Greeks?
Divine signs (a flame that appears and a shooting star) indicate that he should leave.
66
What is Aeneas’s response to Turnus’s plea for mercy?
He kills him.
67
How does Aeneas and his crew end up at Carthage?
Venus directs them there
68
Who is the mother of Aeneas?
Venus
69
Who does Cupid disguise himself as in order to make Dido fall in love with Aeneas?
Ascanius
70
Which divinity is dedicated to the success of Carthage?
Juno
71
What promise does Jupiter make to Juno?
That he will allow the Latins to retain their name
72
In the poem, Aeneas is often referred to as
Father Aeneas
73
Which of the following is NOT true of Dido?
She accepts that Aeneas must leave
74
Why does Aeneas leave Dido?
He is commanded to do so by the gods.
75
atoms
epicurianism
76
wheel
stoicism
77
externals
stoicism
78
life after death
neo platonism
79
social duty
stoicism
80
moderation
epicurianism
81
According to the Epicureans, how was the earth created?
It was the result of random collisions of atoms without any intention or design
82
Who wrote Meditations?
Marcus Aurelius
83
How did Epicureans seek to maximize their happiness?
moderating desires and living simply
84
The ruling principle in the Stoic universe is
order
85
For the Epicureans, the state of a mind free of anxiety and fear is also known as ________.
ataraxia
86
Who is the author of On the Nature of Things?
Lucretius
87
Who is the father of Neo-Platonism?
Plotinus
88
Who founded Epicureanism?
Epicurus
89
According to Lucretius, the earth and sky
will one day be destroyed.
90
Where do the gods dwell, according to the Epicureans?
in some region removed from the known universe
91
What is Plotinus' concept of the One?
a transcendent, unknowable, and good being who had created life
92
What did Stoicism recommend regarding social engagement?
There was a philosophical duty to interact with others and help improve things.
93
Carpe Diem
relates:
stoicism-cant control life(how much better to endure whatever comes)
epicureanism-embrace pleasure(carper diem)
94
Palaestrio
wily slave
95
Philocomasium
prostitute with a heart of gold
96
Pleusicles
young lover
97
Pyrgopolynices
braggart soldier
98
Artotrogus
parasite/flatterer
99
Periplectomenus
old man
100
Does Pyrgopolynices ever discover the truth about the young lovers?
yes
101
How is the lovers’ relationship discovered by Sceledrus?
He sees them together from the roof while chasing a monkey.
102
Shorter farcical plays that accompanied tragedies are called
satyr plays
103
What is the assignment that Sceledrus has been given?
He is to guard Philocomasium.
104
Comedic language was
common speech
105
What role is Pleusicles supposed to play in Palaestrio’s scheme?
a ship captain
106
When Pyrgopolynices tells her to leave, how does Philocomasium react?
She pretends to be sad, but is actually very happy.
107
In The Braggart Soldier, how does the play end for the soldier?
He is beaten and almost castrated.
108
Characters in Roman comedy are usually members of what group of people?
middle and lower class
109
How does Milphidippa persuade Pyrgopolynices to go into Periplectomenus’s house?
She tells him that Acroteleutium owns the house and has kicked out Periplectomenus.
110
In The Braggart Soldier, why is the young woman Philocomasium with the soldier?
He carried her off against her will from Athens.
111
How did Palaestrio end up serving Pyrgopolynices?
Palaestrio was captured by pirates and sold to Pyrgopolynices.
112
Roman Comedy
Two characteristics of Roman comedy are still present today, romance and the celebration of love over typical rules or great odds. Most comedic movies today include some kind of romantic relationship between a man and woman, for example in the movie The Truman Show, the main character falls in love with a woman, however Truman's life is controlled and he does not know it. He eventually loses the woman he loves and then marries a different woman. In this comedy, it is clear that Truman wishes he were with this other woman who was taken form him. They show flashbacks that he has and in these moments they show chemistry between the two characters before the producers remove her from his life. Not only is romance seen in many comedies today, but there is usually great joy over the triumph of love over great odds. This example is also evident in The Truman Show, they don't show the reunion of Truman and the woman he loved, but they show both fo the characters rushing to meet each other because they are free at last. They also show the viewers of Truman's show cheering and clapping out of happiness for him and his ability to now be with his true love.
I think these elements have lasted this long in comedies because the idea of love and romance is something that is so universally related to. To love and be loved is a basic human desire that everyone wants fulfilled is some way or another. I also think that the triumph of love over difficult odds is easily related to even if in comedies the odds seem extreme. Love and relationships are difficult to achieve and I think everyone can relate to that on a certain level as well as when they see others, such as in a comedy, united even though there were many things telling them to give up. Theses idea have remind in comedy up to today because they provide people with not only joy and laughter, but hope for their own lives.
113
clerestory
a series of small arched windows
114
atrium
an open courtyard surround by an arcade
115
narthex
an entrance leading from an atrium into a church
116
fresco
wall paintings on wet plaster
117
transept
the crossing part of a church creating a cross
118
nave
the central part of the church, constructed for the congregation
119
Which theme is popular in Early Christian art?
jonah and the whale
120
What famous church was built in Rome during the reign of the Emperor Constantine?
Saint Peter's Basilica
121
What are the four levels of Saint Jerome's scriptural meaning
literal, allegorical, moral, and anagogical
122
What was the spiritual significance of the transept in a Christian basilica?
It gave the building the shape of a cross, a symbol of Christ.
123
Which emperor in AD 312 issued in Milan a decree of toleration for Christianity (and other religions)?
Emperor Constantine
124
What did the Chi-Rho monogram refer to?
the first two letters of the Greek word for Christ
125
What is a reason why early Christians were persecuted by the government of Rome?
They refused to worship the state gods.
126
In Early Christian depictions of Christ, he is likely to be
beardless
127
Using Saint Jerome’s different levels of scriptural interpretation, what is the allegorical meaning of the story of Jonah?
Jonah’s time in the belly of the fish and subsequent safe return to land prefigure Christ’s death and resurrection.
128
What are the four most important sources of information about the life of Jesus?
Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John
129
What happens when Augustine rushes outside in misery about his sins?
He hears a child’s voice saying, “Pick it up and read it.”
130
Augustine addresses his autobiography to whom?
God
131
What was the chief concern of Augustine’s parents when he was an adolescent?
his secular education
132
Augustine first started praying
so that he wouldn’t be beaten at school.
133
What is Augustine's mother's name?
Monica
134
The City of God was an attempt to ______.
formulate an all-embracing philosophy of history
135
Augustine claims that he learned how to speak
so that he could get things he wanted.
136
What was Augustine's profession before his conversion to Christianity?
teacher
137
As an adult, what keeps Augustine from converting to Christianity?
He feels he can’t be chaste.
138
Which is true regarding Augustine’s studies as a boy?
He loved literature.
139
What was Augustine’s general philosophy of history?
History is linear, predetermined, and controlled by God.
140
How did Augustine explain the sacking of Rome by invading Germanic tribes?
It was part of God’s plan to replace human kingdoms with the Kingdom of God.
141
Augustine's views were likely influenced by what religion?
Manichaeism
142
Augustine believed that war could be just.
true
143
Where was Augustine born?
North Africa
144
western empire
ravenna
145
eastern empire
constantinople
146
hagia sophia
constantinople
147
san vitale
ravenna
148
Mausoleum of Galla Placida
ravenna
149
church of santapollinare nuovo
ravenna
150
What do we learn about the relationship between church and state from the mosaic of Justinian in San Vitale?
There was little to no separation between the two, since Justinian saw himself as appointed by God.
151
What happened to Ravenna in AD 540?
Justinian sent troops to drive the Ostrogoths out
152
What is the meaning of the Greek word "icon" (eikon)?
image
153
What is the Arian controversy?
A dispute over whether Jesus was distinct from the God the Father and the Holy Ghost or not
154
For what type of art is the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia famous?
mosaics
155
How is an icon different from a normal painting?
It is viewed as sacred and is used in religious worship.
156
The exteriors vs interiors of churches and tombs in Ravenna reflect the Christian dichotomy of ________.
body & soul
157
What was Justinian's major architectural achievement?
the rebuilding of Hagia Sophia
158
The Church of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo has mosaics in two different styles. The uppermost mosaics, featuring scenes from the Gospels, are in which style?
Late Roman
159
The Council of Nicaea allowed for
The Christian Churches to become unified
160
The key theoretical element behind the entire conception of the Hagia Sophia is ______.
light
161
How does the shape of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna differ from traditional basilica design?
It is octagonal.
162
Byzantine mosaics are full of religious imagery and symbols. Using EITHER "Emperor Justinian and courtiers" OR "Empress Theodora and retinue", explain how the imagery reflects the attitude that Justinian and Theodora held about their role as Emperor and Empress of a Christian Empire.
"The Emperor Justinian and Courtiers" shows much about Justinian's view of himself as the Emperor. He felt strongly that he was appointed by God and in the textbook it sounds like he views himself as a God of sorts. He viewed himself as the bridge between church and state. This mosaic demonstrates that view as it has him physically standing between government officials and religious men. This mosaic also shows that Justinian was a ruler and was the one with power because if you look at the mosaic, his outfit is fancier and contrasts the rest with a shoulder brooch/jewelry. He is also the only one with the sacred halo around his head, this imagery is very common in ancient artwork that portrays deity. This halo or circle around his head was usually reserved for spiritual beings in artwork. This halo in the mosaic further proves that Justinian viewed himself as a spiritual being.
163
cloister
the enclosed garden and walkway in the interior of the monastery
164
scriptorium
the library and copying area of the monastery
165
refectory
eating hall
166
chapter house
the meeting room in which part of the rule of st benedict is read everyday
167
ambulatory
a continuation of side aisles that extends behind the choirs and apse which allows for flow into chapel
168
tribune gallery
a 2nd story space between nave arcade and clerestory used for traffic
169
Charlemagne was king of the
franks
170
If you were to walk into a cathedral during mass, which parts of the cathedral could you visit?
The ambulatory and the radiating chapels
171
What is the name for the semicircular space above the doors on a Romanesque church?
tympanum
172
In what part of the monastery were illuminated manuscripts produced?
scriptorium
173
Who was the author of the most famous "Rule" in western monasticism?
Saint Benedict
174
What is the Vulgate Bible?
a version of the Bible largely translated into Latin by Saint Jerome
175
Which is true regarding Charlemagne and education?
He encouraged education, founded several schools, and also sought learning himself.
176
This sculptural group is part of what building? round thing
Cathedral of Saint-Lazare
177
What are the hallmark features of Romanesque architecture?
Fortress-like appearance, rounded arches, small windows
178
The medieval curriculum established during Charlemagne’s reign included which general categories?
grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic
179
How is the Carolingian Renaissance a renaissance or rebirth of ideas from the classical world of Rome and Greece?
?
180
pinabel
friend and champion of Ganelon
181
bramimunde
queen of spain
182
thierry
champion knight of charlamegne
183
blancadrin
vassal of king marsile
184
ganelon
roland step father
185
oliver
rolands best friend
186
What is the name for the sections of The Song of Roland?
laisses
187
What assignment is Ganelon given by Charlemagne?
He is to deliver terms of surrender to Marsilion.
188
Who is Pinabel?
Ganelon’s kinsman and champion
189
Of Turpin, Oliver, and Roland, who survives the battle?
None of them
190
Who is assigned to lead the army’s rearguard?
Roland
191
What is a chanson de geste?
a poem about valorous deeds
192
Which is true about Archbishop Turpin?
He fights and kills a number of enemy soldiers
193
The warrior character Turpin is a/an:
archbishop
194
Ganelon decides to plot with the Muslims in order to betray and kill
roland
195
How does Ganelon argue that he is not guilty of treason?
He was only taking justified revenge against Roland.
196
Feeling that he is dying, Roland says a lengthy farewell to Durendal, who is
his sword
197
When Roland sees that he and his men have been ambushed
he refuses to blow his horn and prepares for battle.
198
Roman
| Cicero, “On Duties”:
“The better and more noble, therefore, the character with which a man is endowed, the more does he prefer the life of service to the life of pleasure. Whence it follows that man, if he is obedient to Nature, cannot do harm to his fellow-man. Finally, if a man wrongs his neighbor to gain some advantage for himself he must either imagine that he is not acting in defiance of Nature or he must believe that death, poverty, pain, or even the loss of children, kinsmen, or friends, is more to be shunned than an act of injustice against another” Cicero first explains what honor is - a combination of wisdom, justice, spirit, and moderation. To be honorable, you must make actions that consider all of these premises in the best manner possible. He explains that it is easy to fall into the trap of doing what is easiest for oneself, but it is not what is best.
199
Roman
| Plautus, The Braggart Soldier:
The Braggart Soldier is the story of a man who kidnaps the love of another man and is tricked into giving her up without bloodshed. Themes of The Braggart Soldier include loyalty, self-image, and manipulation.
Pyrgopolynices. the soldier; the braggart.
Palaestrio. the clever slave; actually Pleusicles' slave, and has gone off to resume Philocomasium.
Periplectomenus. old man of Ephesus and neighbor to Pyrgopolynices.
“Why should I tell you what all mortals know, that you,
Pyrgopolinices, live on earth in a category of your own with regard to bravery, looks, and absolutely unbeatable deeds? All women are in love with you, and rightly so, since you’re so handsome; for instance those who grabbed me by my cloak yesterday.”
200
Roman
| Virgil, The Aeneid
“And here, O youth most worthy to be praised, You, and the hard fate of your piteous death, And your most noble deeds, I shall not pass In silence, if an act so great as yours Shall be believed by any future age!” Sense of duty, Virgil’s Aeneid will take issue with this celebration of individual achievement through combat. In his poem, the hero is not someone primarily concerned with his own glory or honor but rather someone who understands his ties to the community or the collective and who is willing to give up his own goals and desires for the greater good of the whole. To demonstrate those values, Virgil centers his poem around a main character who is very different from traditional Greek heroes. Aeneas will demonstrate his greatness not only through his combat prowess (as he is certainly a capable fighter) but primarily through his ability to shepherd the group of Trojan refugees that he leads until he establishes them safely in their new home. To do so requires him to voluntarily take on difficult tasks that will only be of benefit for those who come after him. Emphasis on arete.
“Hither now bend thy twin-eyed gaze; behold this people, the Romans that are thine. Here is Caesar and all Iülus’6 posterity that shall arise under the mighty cope of heaven. Here is he, he of whose promise once and again thou hearest, Caesar Augustus, a god’s son, who shall again establish the ag”
Aeneas
The protagonist of the Aeneid. Aeneas is a survivor of the siege of Troy, a city on the coast of Asia Minor. His defining characteristic is piety, a respect for the will of the gods. He is a fearsome warrior and a leader able to motivate his men in the face of adversity, but also a man capable of great compassion and sorrow.
Dido
The queen of Carthage, a city in northern Africa, in what is now Tunisia, and lover of Aeneas. Dido left the land of Tyre when her husband was murdered by Pygmalion, her brother. She and her city are strong, but she becomes an unfortunate pawn of the gods in their struggle for Aeneas’s destiny. Her love for Aeneas proves to be her downfall. After he abandons her, she constructs a funeral pyre and stabs herself upon it with Aeneas’s sword.
Turnus
The ruler of the Rutulians in Italy. Turnus is Aeneas’s major antagonist among mortals. He is Lavinia’s leading suitor until Aeneas arrives.
201
Roman
| Horace Carpe Diem
“Ask not, Leuconoë (we cannot know), what end the gods have set for me, for thee, nor make trial of the Babylonian tables! How much better to endure whatever comes, whether Jupiter allots us added winters or whether this is last, which now wears out the Tuscan Sea upon the barrier of the cliffs! Show wisdom! Busy thyself with household tasks; and since life is brief, cut short far-reaching hopes! Even while we speak, envious Time has sped. Reap the harvest of today [carpe diem], putting as little trust as may be in the morrow!”
202
Roman
| Sulpicia“Love has come at last”
“Love has come at last, and such a love as I should be more shamed to hide than to reveal. Cytherea,8 yielding to my Muse’s prayers, has brought him here and laid him in my arms. Venus has kept her promise. Let people talk, who never themselves have found such joys as now are mine. I wish that I could send my tablets to my love unsealed, not caring who might read them first. The sin is sweet, to mask it for fear of shame is bitter. I’m proud we’ve joined, each worthy of the other” Love is not platonic-it is joyous and joining.
203
Roman
| Juvenal Satire III
“Tis frequent here, for want of sleep, to die, Which fumes of undigested feasts deny, And, with imperfect heat, in languid stomachs fry. What house secure from noise the poor can keep, When even the rich can scarce afford to sleep? So dear it costs to purchase rest in Rome, And hence the sources of diseases come. The drover,9 who his fellow-drover meets In narrow passages of winding streets; The wagoners, that curse their standing teams, Would wake even drowsy Drusus10 from his dreams. And yet the wealthy will not brook delay, But sweep above our heads, and make their way, In lofty litters borne, and read and write, Or sleep at ease, the shutters make it night; Yet still he reaches first the public place. The press before him stops the client’s pace; The crowd that follows crush his panting sides, And trip his heels; he walks not, but he rides. One elbows him, one jostles in the shole, A rafter breaks his head, or chairman’s pole;
204
Roman
| Ovid Metamorpheses
a poem that recounts mythological tales from the creation of the world and the gods through to the death of Julius Caesar. “ In Ovid’s story of the young lovers Pyramus and Thisbe, the rival families of the ill-fated couple, rivals, forbid them to marry. Pyramus com- mits suicide and Thisbe, finding his body, kills herself as well. The story has its counterparts in Romeo and Juliet ( “ What parents could not hinder, they forbad. For with fierce flames young Pyramus still burn’d, And grateful Thisbe flames as fierce return’d. Aloud in words their thoughts they dare not break, But silent stand; and silent looks can speak. The fire of love the more it is supprest, The more it glows, and rages in the breast. Before Thisbe joins Pyramus in death, she has a final request for their parents. Now, both our cruel parents, hear my pray’r; My pray’r to offer for us both I dare; Oh! see our ashes in one urn confin’d, Whom love at first, and fate at last has join’d. The bliss, you envy’d, is not our request; Lovers, when dead, may sure together rest.
205
Roman
| Pliny the Younger, “Letter to Tacitus on the Eruption of Vesuvius”
bequeathed to history his eyewitness report on the destruction in a letter written to the historian Tacitu“My mother came rushing into my bedroom; I was just getting up, intending in my turn to arouse her if she were asleep. We sat down in the rather narrow courtyard of the house lying between the sea and the buildings. I don’t know whether I should call it iron nerves or folly—I was only seventeen: I called for a book of Titus Livy and as if at ease I read it and even copied some passages, as I had been doing. Then one of my uncle’s friends, who had recently come from Spain to visit him, when he saw my mother and me sitting there, and me actually reading a book, rebuked her apathy and my unconcern. But I was as intent on my book as ever.”
206
Romans
| Pliny younger and “Correspondence with Trajan about the Christians”
Pliny to trajan It is my custom, Sire, to refer to you in all cases where I am in doubt, for who can better clear up difficulties and inform me? I have never been present at any legal examination of the Christians, and I do not know, therefore, what are the usual penalties passed upon them, or the limits of those penalties, or how searching an inquiry should be made. ... In the meantime, this is the plan which I have adopted in the case of those Christians who have been brought before me. I ask them whether they are Christians, if they say “Yes,” then I repeat the question the second time, and also a third— warning them of the penalties involved; and if they persist, I order them away to prison. For I do not doubt that—be their admitted crime what it may—their pertinacity and inflexible obstinacy surely ought to be punished.
207
Roman
| Marcus Aurelius, Meditations
“We live for an instant [but to be swallowed in] complete forgetfulness and the void of infinite time. . . . Of the life of man the duration is but a point, its substance streaming away, its perception dim, the fabric of the entire body prone to decay, and the soul a vortex, fortune incalculable and fame uncertain. In a word all things of the body are as a river, and the things of the soul as a dream and a vapor. [It matters not how long one lives,] for look at the yawning gulf of time behind thee and before thee at another infinity to come. In this eternity the life of a baby of three days and [a span] of three centuries are as one.” he was a stoic philosopher. never asked why events were as ugly as they were or whether it was right that there should be such pain in the world. The world was as it was; it had always been that way, and one could only choose one’s attitude toward it. “A cucumber is bitter,” he wrote. “Throw it away. There are briars in the road. Turn aside from them. This is enough. Do not add, ‘And why were such things made in the world?’”
208
Early Christian
| Augustine confessions
Confessions, a spiritual autobiography and the first of its kind (as far as we know) in the Western tradition, describes how God guided him stage by stage away from the enticements of the world and of the flesh toward a higher spiritual calling. Augustine details in each period of his life what God intended him to learn from his experiences. The pear tree incident is a famous one; Augustine wants to talk about it to show how evil can be attractive for its own sake. Augustine and his young cohorts were not hungry; they stole just for the thrill of stealing, of doing the forbidden. Doing the forbidden, he shows, is to substitute our own will for that of God, to displace God and issue to ourselves only those laws we care to follow. For Augustine, life is a search for the true object of love; if we allow God to guide us, he will lead us through all the inferior stages of love, that is, love of things, love of fame, love of others, and even love of ourselves, until we can finally taste of the highest order of love, which is love of God. When we love God, we do his will and we do good. When we love lesser things, we do our own will and we do evil. Evil is not therefore some “thing” but rather a deprivation of good, a choice to do something less or love something less than the highest good, which is God.
209
Early chirstian city of god
augustine framed the concept of the church as an eternal spiritual City of God in his book The City of God (De civitate Dei). The City of God was distinct from the material and flawed City of Man. The City of God asserts that history has a direction willed by God and that in the end all will be made right as the City of Man gives way to the City of God. The City of God, of course, is closely identified with the church and Rome, and survives regardless of invasions— For if two men meet, and are forced by some compelling reason not to pass on but to stay in company, then if neither knows the other’s language, it is easier for dumb animals, even of different kinds, to associate together than these men, although both are human beings. For when men cannot communicate their thoughts to each other, simply because of difference of language, all the similarity of their common
