Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
Qualitative Designs
A
using words to provide evidence
2
Q
Benefits to qualitative research
A
systemic, subjective approach to describe life experiences/give them meaning focuses on understanding flexible does not test hypothesis not true causality
3
Q
Four major types of Qualitative Research
A
phenomenology
ethnography
grounded theory
historical
4
Q
Phenomenology
A
describes teh meaning of human experience
5
Q
Bracketing
A
process of identifying and holding abay preconceived beliefs and opinions about phenomenon that is being studied
6
Q
Reflective Journal
A
clarify persona vlaues/areas of bias
7
Q
Main data source for phenomenology
A
in-depth conversations with participants
8
Q
Grounded Theory
A
aims to discover theoretical precepts about social psychological processes and social structures (grounded in data)
9
Q
Grounded Theory has
A
number of theoretical roots (symbolic interaction)
focuses on social psychological processes and social structures
10
Q
Ethnography
A
focuses on the culture of a group of people
seeks to understand an emic perspective (insiders’ view)
11
Q
Etic perspective
A
researcher’s perspectives/interpretation
12
Q
Ethnography relies on
A
fieldwork and participant observation
13
Q
Historical Research
A
establishes facts about/relationships among past events
14
Q
Historical research sources
A
written records
photographs
interviews
pictures
15
Q
historical research
A
external criticism (authenticity of the source) internal criticism (worth of the evidence)
16
Q
Other types of qualitative research
A
case studies narrative analysis (focus on studies and individuals) feminist research participatory action research descriptive qualitative
17
Q
Qualitative Sampling
A
not representative
not random selection
stop sampling when data saturation is met
18
Q
Convenience sampling
A
volunteer (not preferred but economical)
19
Q
snowball sampling
A
network sampling
20
Q
purposive sampling
A
researchers choose cases that will contribute to the study the most
21
Q
theoretical sampling
A
involves decisions about where to find data to develop an emerging theory optimally
22
Q
maximum variation sampling
A
cases with wide variation on phenomenon of interest
23
Q
extreme case sampling
A
most unusual/extreme cases
24
Q
typical case sampling
A
cases that illustrate what is typical
25
homogenous sampling
reducing variation
26
Focus group discussion pros
cost effective
tend to be enjoyable
interactions enhance data
27
focus group cons
```
number of questions
available response time
skill of interviewer
minority perspective
confidentiality
```
28
artifacts
diaries
photos
letter
books
29
qualitative data
```
texts
transcripts
field notes
memos
books
pictures
maps
memoirs
videos
audio tapes
newspapers
```
30
qualitative data analysis occurs
concurrently with data collection
31
ways to analyze qualitative data
```
transcribing and checking
reading the whole and between the line
coding
identify themes
validate themes/patterns
```
32
Coding data:
inductive analysis
33
open coding/codes
primary coding
| first level
34
axial coding
naming categories
second level of coding
sorting/grouping
35
selective coding
naming theme
| higher level of coding
36
qualitative data interpretation
verifying the analysis (representativeness/replication)
researcher offers their own interpretation
can focus on usefulness of findings for practice
37
trustworthiness
the "truth value" of qualitative data and analysis
38
four criteria of trustworthiness
credibility (confidence of truth in data)
dependability (stability over time and conditions)
confirmability (objectivity of data)
transferability (extent that findings can be transferred to other settings/groups)
39
strategies enhancing trustworthiness
```
prolonged engagement
persistent observation
comprehensive/vivid recording of info
audit trail/decision trail
member checking (provide feedback to participants and obtain reactions--controversial)
```
40
strategies enhancing trustworthiness II
data triangulation (use of multiple data sources, time/space/person)
negative case analysis (specific search for invalidating cases)
peer review/debriefing
inquiry audit (formal scrutiny of data/supporting documents by external reviewer)
thick/contextualized description
researcher credibility
41
Epidemiology
study of distribution and determinants of disease in human population
42
distribution
frequency/pattern
43
determinants
causes/risk factors
44
disease
health conditions/events
45
epidemiologic triangle
host
agent
environment
46
count data
ratio
proportion
rate
raw number
a/b
a/a +b multiplied by 1000
number of cases divided by the size of population per unit of time
47
Prevalence
number of existing cases of a disease in a population regardless of when acquired
48
incidence
number of new cases of a disease during a specific period
49
analytic epidemiology
use of a comparison group
50
descriptive epidemiology
```
use to generate hypotheses
5W's who (person) where (place) when (time) why/how (causes/risk factors/modes of transmission) what (health issue)
examples: case report/series
ecologic studies
cross-sectional studies
```
51
case report/case series
1 patient or over one patient
describes new disease
used to explain changes in disease patterns/alert healthcare community to unusual signs/symptoms
lacks a comparison group = no hypothesis
52
ecologic studies
compare summary measure disease frequency
uses aggregate data
uses a population as unit of analysis
expedient
lacks link of exposure to disease to specific individuals
53
cross-sectional studies
measures exposure/disease as each exists in one defined population at one specific point in time
snapshot of population characteristic
calculates prevalence ratio
difficult to distinguish determinants of cause of disease from determinants of survival
54
analytic epidemiology
used to test hypotheses
test association between exposure/disease
case-control studies/cohort studies (observational)
intervention/experimental studies
55
case-control studies
sample group WITH and group WITHOUT disease or outcome measure under study
ask individual to recall past exposures to risk factors
determine cases(individuals with disease of interest) and controls (without disease but at risk to develop disease)
calculate odds ratio
56
Odds Ratio
A(# RFw/Disease) x D (#noRFw/oDisease) / B(#RFw/odisease) x C(noRFw/Disease)
=1 exposure does not affect odds
>1 exposure positively associated
<1 exposure negatively associated
57
cohort study
researcher records whether each study participant is expose or not and tracks participant to see if they develop disease of interest
representative group of target population
compare probability of disease in exposed individuals to unexposed individuals
calculate relative risk
58
relative risk
incidence in exposed group / incidence in unexposed group
=1 no association
>1 positive association
<1 negative association
59
intervention studies
manipulates exposure of interest
assigns subjects to one or more exposure groups (placebo/standard of care and intervention)
uses random assignment
uses risk ratio
60
evidence hierarchy
1. systematic reviews/ meta analysis/ EBP guidelines
2. randomized controlled trials
3. controlled trials w/out randomization
4. cohort studies/case control studies
5. evidence from systematic reviews of descriptive and qualitative studies
6. evidence from single descriptive/qualitative study
7. evidence from opinion of authorities/reports of expert committees
61
screening
tests people w/out known disease to determine if they have a disease
offers early detection
aims to reduce morbidity/mortality
62
screening validity measures
sensitivity
specificity
positive predictive value
63
sensitivity
ability of test to correctly id people w/ disease w/ positive test result (%true positive)
true positive + false-negative
64
specificity
ability of test to id people w/out disease by negative test result (%true negative)
true negative + false positive
65
positive predictive value
probability that person screening positive actually has the disease
(true positive / (true positive + false positive)
66
Experimental Designs
| must have
```
cause-and-effect
strong causality
1. manipulation of independent variable
2. randomization of subjects
3. control
```
67
Quasi-Experiment
must have
but can lack
can test cause and effect
weaker causality
manipulation
randomization or control/comparison group
68
six types of true experimental designs
```
two group, pretest-posttest (classic)
two group, posttest only
solomon four-group
multiple experimental groups (but one control group)crossover designs
factorial design
```
69
Factorial design
researches add at least one additional intervention
| tests for multiple causality
70
three common quasi-experimental designs
nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest
time series design
pre-experimental designs
71
nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest
two groups measured before and after an intervention
experimental/comparison groups but no randomization
threats to internal validity (selection, maturation, testing, mortality)
72
time series design
one group is measured prior to an intervention then measured multiple times over a prolonged period
useful for determining trends over time
data collected multiple times to determine change from baseline
73
pre-experimental designs
posttest only design
experimental and/or comparison groups neither is pretested nor measured
no randomization used
useful when testing effects are suspected to be a threat to internal validity
74
non-experimental designs used for
describing a phenomenon in detail
| explaining/predicting relationships among variables
75
non-experimental research designs
no manipulation
no randomization
no control group
76
Types of non experimental design
descriptive
| correlational
77
exploratory descriptive research
conduced in natural setting to answer a research question r/t incidence/prevalence/frequency of a phenomenon
78
comparative descriptive resaesrch
two distinct groups are described and compared in terms of their variables
79
survey research
collects detailed descriptions of existing variables
| uses self-report questionnaire
80
correlational research design
qualifying strength/direction (+/-) of relationship
| flexible and efficient
81
Descriptive (simple) correlational design
uses statistics
82
model-testing designs
tests proposed relationship w/in a theoretical model
uses statistical tests
usually path analyses and structural equation modeling
83
quantitative design
examines cause and effect
| experimental and quasi-experimental
84
potential sources of bias
```
operational definitions
measurement methods
sample
researches or research assistants
individual subjects
data
```
85
between groups designs
compare different groups of subjects
86
within-groups designs
compare same group but at different point in time
87
panel designs
same subjects provide data at multiple points in time
88
trend studies
non experimental
| gather data in target pop across time
89
crossover design
subjects receive more than one experimental tx and then followed over time
90
study validity
internal validity
statistical conclusion validity
external validity
construct validity
91
internal validity threats
intrusion of extraneous variables
established by ruling out threats
selection bias
history (past event that effects DV)
maturation (developmental processes that operation w/in a person over time)
testing
instrumentation (changes in equipment used)
mortality (or attrition)
statistical conclusion validity (no type II error)
92
external validity
degree to which the results of the study can be generalized to other subjects/setting/times
93
threats to external validity
```
construct validity (instruments are actually measuring theoretical concepts)
effects of selection
interx of tx and selection of subjects
interx of tx and setting/history
```
94
metaparadigm of nursing
global perspective of a discipline
| person - environment - health - nursing
95
deductive approach
use to test a theory
involve quantitative approach
start with a research question/testable idea
96
inductive approach
use to develop a theory
involve qualitative approach
start with data
97
introduction section
problem statement
| literature review
98
guidelines for conducting ethical research
```
nuremberg code
declaration of helsinki
informed consent
the ana
voluntary consent
rights of subjects to withdraw
protection of subjects from physical and mental harm/suffering/death
balance of benefits and risks
```
99
vulnerable populations
```
children
pregnant women
unborn fetuses
frail elderly
prisoners
mentally handicapped
```
100
minimal risk =
expedited review
| ex noninvasive monitoring, research on benign drugs
101
no apparent risk =
exempt from review
| most educational research
102
associative hypothesis
relationship between variables
103
causal hypothesis
causal relationship between variables
104
non directional hypothesis
an association between variables
105
directional hypothesis
positive or negative relationship
106
null hypothesis
no relationship between variables
107
Evidence-based practice
integration of best research evidence, clinical expertise and patient values
108
nursing research
planned/systematic activity that leads to new knowledge and/or discover of solutions r/t nursing
109
steps of ebp
```
ask clinical question
search literature
critically appraise evidence
implement practice change
evaluate outcomes
```
