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ZOO 3700 > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

plankton

A

drifting organisms that inhabit the pelagic zones of oceans, seas, or freshwater bodies of water

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2
Q

function (metabolic) difference in plankton

A

zooplankton and phytoplankton

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3
Q

zooplankton

A

heterotrophic, use oxygen, produce carbon dioxide

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4
Q

phytoplankton

A

autotrophic, use carbon dioxide, produce oxygen

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5
Q

alternate metabolic needs of plankton means

A

zooplankton and phytoplankton may inhabit different areas

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6
Q

life history differences in plankton

A

holoplankton and meroplankton

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7
Q

holoplankton

A

whole life cycle as plankton, eg. copepods, dinoflagellates

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8
Q

meroplankton

A

part of life cycle as plankton, eg. trochophores, tadpoles

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9
Q

meroplankton life cycle

A

biphasic (metamorphic) life cycle

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10
Q

biphasic (metamorphic) life cycle

A

larval stage (plankton) metamorphoses to a juvenile stage (benthic)

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11
Q

alternative life stages in biphasic (metamorphic) life cycles

A

many metamorphic life cycles have alternative life stages (even so much as direct) which provides evidence of the transition between life cycles evolutionarily

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12
Q

C. elegans have what life cycle

A

non-metamorphic (direct)

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13
Q

sand dollars and sea biscuits have what life cycle

A

biphasic (metamorphic)

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14
Q

biphasic life cycles are subject to unique selective pressures

A

at the planktonic and benthic stages

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15
Q

each life stage in the biphasic life cycle becomes

A

more divergent in response to unique selective pressures at each life stage

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16
Q

biphasic life cycles life stages

A

planktonic and benthic

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17
Q

possible selective pressures in the planktonic life stage

A

currents, swimming, predation, biotic and abiotic pressures requiring sensory structures (like rapid changes in temperature dependent on position in water column)

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18
Q

possible selective pressures in the benthic life stage

A

competition (more-so than plankton because environment is very selective), predation, biotic and abiotic pressures requiring sensory structures (less-so temperature but increased potential for turbulence)

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19
Q

possible advantage for being planktonic

A

dispersal potential to colonize new habitats, competition avoidance (massive space availability), large array of factors contribute to diversity

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20
Q

possible disadvantages for being planktonic

A

susceptibility to predation (little shelter), buoyancy (must hold position in the water column using air chambers), swimming considering Reynold’s number

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21
Q

possible planktonic predator avoidance strategies

A

transparency, bioluminescence, mechanical (spines), chemical (toxins), migrations (diurnal vertical migrations – photosynthetic need, evasion of predators), predator detection

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22
Q

transparency is common across how many major taxa, including

A

10 major taxa, including chaetognatha, ctenophora, and cubozoa

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23
Q

mapping functional characteristics on top of a phylogeny

A

allows you to make a hypothesis (on top of the phylogeny hypothesis)

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24
Q

there is an association (co-occurrence) between what 2 lifestyles

A

transparency and pelagic lifestyles

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25
Q

transparency is uncommon and common in what systems

A

uncommon in terrestrial systems and common in marine and freshwater systems

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26
Q

Snell’s window

A

predators looking up to the water’s surface have a broad view (and can further identify shadows) because the angle of light changes between mediums of different densities

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27
Q

transparency is advantageous over pigmentation at

A

shallow depths to limit shadows from down-dwelling light

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28
Q

pigmentation is advantageous over transparency at

A

deeper depths where pink pigmentation is best camouflaged in the penetrating red/pink wavelengths of light

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29
Q

although red/pink pigmentation is advantageous at deeper depths

A

predators tend to use bioluminescence at these depths so prey must employ counter-strategies

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30
Q

dynamic transparency

A

optimal camouflage regardless of depth, eg. cephalopods

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31
Q

bioluminescence is effectiveky

A

chemiluminescence in vivo

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32
Q

bioluminescence contributes to predator avoidance

A

bioluminescence may startle predators, may inhibit a predator’s ability to discern an individual when exhibited by a group, may act as a warning display (appear larger), may act as camouflage (when adjacent to other bioluminescent organisms)

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33
Q

bioluminescence has evolved

A

more than 40 times across animal taxa, and based on trait distribution probably evolved independently multiple times (homoplasy)

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34
Q

homoplasy

A

evolution of a trait multiple times independently

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35
Q

luciferase

A

catalyzes luciferin in a chemical reaction to produce light, often catalyzed by movement, requires modification of protein

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36
Q

fluorescence

A

physical process whereby an electron is excited and fall back to its ground state by emitting a photon

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37
Q

daphnia require stationary water

A

for sufficient algae to filter from the water, thus there are few marine species

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38
Q

daphnia are “transparent”

A

for the purposes of murky pond water

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39
Q

daphnia ocellus

A

compound eye

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40
Q

daphnia females

A

greatly outnumber males

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41
Q

daphnia phenotypic plasticity

A

helmet, core body, apical spine, more hemoglobin in low oxygen environments (pink), less hemoglobin in high oxygen environments

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42
Q

parthenogenetic life cycle, daphnia

A

females produce diploid females under optimal conditions, defined as immortal because they reproduce asexually

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43
Q

sexual life cycle, daphnia

A

females produce diploid males and haploid eggs under stressful conditions

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44
Q

male daphnia breed with female daphnia, which leads to the formation of

A

ephippia, embryos that are able to arrest in development as in diapause

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45
Q

ephippia resume development

A

when the environment allows for it

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46
Q

daphnia undergo a developmental what in sexual production

A

staging scheme

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47
Q

growth trajectory

A

size vs time

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48
Q

developmental trajectory

A

developmental stage vs time

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49
Q

daphnia helmet, core body, and apical spine length change in response to

A

predators, predator species may secrete a signal

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50
Q

cyclomorphosis

A

occurrence of cyclic or seasonal changes in the phenotype of an organism through successive generations

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51
Q

invertebrates that exhibit cyclomorphosis

A

small aquatic invertebrates that reproduce by parthenogenesis and give rise to several generations annually

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52
Q

daphnia produce eggs

A

after every molt

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53
Q

daphnia molts release

A

calcium back into the environment

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54
Q

life history

A

stages of growth, reproduction, and dispersal than an individual goes through during its life from birth to death

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55
Q

life histories are inconsistent even

A

within groups of a species

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56
Q

life history theory

A

the allocation of energy through life history differs

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57
Q

life history theory has successfully explained

A

why organisms are small/large, mature early/late, produce many/few offspring, have a short/long lifespan

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58
Q

energy supports growth

A

may be linear, stagnated, or some combination

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59
Q

energy is provided by the moth

A

based on the extent to which the mother supplies energy varies (size of egg)

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60
Q

energy supports reproduction

A

reproductive events over entire lifetime, singular events, multiple events

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61
Q

energy and lifespan

A

massively different ages between organisms even within a species

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62
Q

small vs large organisms based on

A

size at brith, size at maturity, growth pattern (between life stages), reproductive investment, habitat (nutrient./shelter availability)

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63
Q

longevity of organisms based on

A

mortality/survival rates, sensescence

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64
Q

longevity

A

potential lifetime excluding catastrophic events

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65
Q

mortality/survival rates are based on

A

endogenous and exogenous factors

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66
Q

senescence

A

process of deterioration with age

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67
Q

reproductive output of organisms based on

A

reproductive investment, size (growth rate), longevity (number of reproductive events), age at maturity

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68
Q

impact of sexual vs asexual reproduction

A

red sea urchin (sexual) produces millions of spawn but has hardly changed since Cambrian times, daphnia (asexual) produce few clones but has changed greatly since the Cambrian times (minor changes in mother must produce changes in offspring)

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69
Q

life histories evolve as a result

A

of interactions between extrinsic and intrinsic factors

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70
Q

extrinsic factors

A

affect age specific rates of mortality and reproduction (ecology)

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71
Q

intrinsic factors

A

trade-offs in physiology, development, genetics, and phylogeny (inherited trait can be of benefit or detriment)

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72
Q

planktonic life histories correlated with dispersal potential

A

planktotrophic - little provision from mother but more offspring, lecithotrophic - more provision from mother (yolky egg) and still many offspring, direct - high provision from mother for juvenile to adult stages

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73
Q

planktotrophic

A

little provision from mother

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74
Q

lecithotrophic

A

more provision from mother, yolky egg

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75
Q

trade-offs consider

A

how life histories are related

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76
Q

trade-offs are necessary for 3 reasons

A

the amount of energy available is finite, biological processes take time (the build up metabolic energy required), every organism’s life history is an evolutionary compromise (resource allocation trade-off)

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77
Q

direct constraint exists between 2 allocations for energy

A

somatic function and reproductive function, must live to reproduce, but energy into growth inhibits reproduction

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78
Q

trade-off prediction

A

fitness is optimal at either end of the investment spectrum

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79
Q

fitness is optimal at either end of the investment spectrum – number of offspring vs investment per offspring

A

divergency between few offspring/high investment per offspring and many offspring/low investment per offspring – few species exhibit some offspring/medium investment per offspring

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80
Q

fitness is optimal at either end of the investment spectrum – reproductive capabilities vs growth rate

A

time to grow to a certain stage has an inverse relationship to fertilization events, but does not produce the divergence seen in number of offspring vs investment per offspring

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81
Q

trade-offs only exist when

A

there are limited, equal resources allocated between traits

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82
Q

not everything is based on the effects of trade offs

A

constraints exist

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83
Q

ecotoxicology

A

synthetic science, study of the effects of toxic chemicals on biological organisms, especially at the population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere levels – use models, organisms best suited for studies – consider interactions in the broader – integrates toxicology ecology, and chemistry

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84
Q

cause-effect paradigm

A

the dose determines that a thing is not a poison, Paracelsus

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85
Q

pharmaceuticals need to overcome

A

cell capability to ‘pump out’ a foreign material

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86
Q

dose response curve

A

concentration vs effect, determine impact of concentration in environment

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87
Q

NOEC

A

no observed effect concentration

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88
Q

LC50

A

lethal concentration to kill 50% of the population

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89
Q

DDT is

A

an estrogenic mimic, binds to estrogen binds involved in shell thickening

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90
Q

DDT in vivo

A

shell thinning

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91
Q

DDT in situ

A

bioaccumulation leading to bird population decline

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92
Q

SSRIs

A

selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors, thought to block the reabsorption of serotonin from the synaptic cleft (conserved pathway common in invertebrates and vertebrates

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93
Q

SSRIs are introduced to the environment in 2 ways

A

human and animal consumption followed by residual excretion, agricultural and industrial run off – incomplete filtration of waste water

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94
Q

polarization vision

A

natural polarizing filters in the eyes of organisms can filter out light wavelengths vibrating in select directions, increases contrast, which may explain some behaviours

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95
Q

polarization in shallow reefs

A

horizontal polarization

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96
Q

diel vertical migration selective forces

A

feeding, photosynthesis, protections from predation

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97
Q

diel vertical migration phytoplankton

A

down at night (use stored energy and switch to heterotrophic metabolism) and up during the day (photosynthesis)

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98
Q

diel vertical migration zooplankton

A

migrate up at night (exhibit bioluminescence) and down during the day (despite feeding on phytoplankton)

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99
Q

sensitive detection of predators and escape response

A

cost/benefit of increased susceptibility due to greater detection (movement) and increased vulnerability due to delayed escape

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100
Q

escape threshold

A

partial explanation of jerking movements of copepods, cost/benefit of increased susceptibility due to greater detection (movement) and increased vulnerability due to delayed escape

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101
Q

5 ways to maintain position in the water column

A

via floats (air chambers), lipid accumulation (change in density), shell loss (less restrictive), selective ion regulation (create change in osmotic pressure for change in density), decreasing the sinking rate (extension of skeletal appendages

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102
Q

one dinoflagellate species makes ‘fingers’ containing

A

chloroplasts each morning that are resorbed at night - consider the cost of making fingers and rebuilding chloroplasts and benefit of having a reduced sinking rate and optimal position for photosynthesis

103
Q

Reynold’s number, Re

A 
LS/Vk
L length of moving object
S velocity of moving object
L•S inertial force
Vk kinematic viscosity, viscosity constant as an assessment of the environment - changes with temperature
104
Q

Re > 4000

A

inertial force dominant

105
Q

Re < 1000

A

viscosity force dominant

106
Q

Re and temperature, gas

A

direct

107
Q

Re and temperature, liquid

A

inverse

108
Q

planktonic organisms exist in Re environment

A

viscosity force dominant, inertia is negligible so streamlining not important, flow reversible, symmetrical flapping strokes ineffective – need power and recovery strokes or helical waves of bending

109
Q

eutrophication

A

excessive richness of nutrients in a body of water, frequently due to runoff from land causing a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen

110
Q

boundary layers

A

area above a surface

111
Q

“skin breather” requires

A

tight integration of circulatory system

112
Q

“skin breather” impacted by 4 factors

A

size, shape, metabolism (heterotrophic organisms require a lot of oxygen and must dispose of a lot of carbon dioxide), activity (consider diurnal activity - may involve changes in metabolism, periods of metabolic recovery like in phototrophic plankton)

113
Q

Fick’s Law

A

semipermeable membranes achieve equilibrium with protein channels and carriers, particles move by diffusion

114
Q

Fick’s Law variables

A 
M rate of diffusion
D diffusion coefficient
A area
C concentration gradient
L barrier thickness
115
Q

2 boundary layer characteristics

A

velocity decreases exponentially and is slowest nearest the barrier, increasing the velocity of flow decreases the size of the boundary layer but decreases the concentration of particles

116
Q

boundary layer and the benthic phase

A

settling involves intense turbulence, but as velocity decreases so too does turbulence at which point they are able to settle

117
Q

3 ways to disrupt the boundary layers

A

fluid flow via cilia, fluid flow via appendages, whole body movement (in the absence of specialized structures)

118
Q

there is incredible unity and diversity in respiratory structures

A

unity of function, diversity of structures

119
Q

free path

A

average distance traveled by a moving particle between successive collisions with other particles

120
Q

gas exchange in air vs water

A 
O2 content higher in air
density lower in air
diffusion coefficient high in air
free path higher in air
velocity equal
collisions per second higher in air
121
Q

tracheal system limits

A

body size - ~300 mya hexapods were significantly larger suggesting the greater availability of atmospheric oxygen allowed for greater metabolism and therefore greater body size

122
Q

tracheal system limits and beetles

A

a greater fraction of the body is dedicated to respiratory system with increased body size, space available for the trachea within the leg may ultimately limit the maximum size of extant beetles – functional cannot have massively long legs – consider how metabolism scales with body size

123
Q

fundamental limits of diffusion

A

the 1 mm rule, beyond which diffusion is inefficient

124
Q

escaping the fundamental limits of diffusion

A

circulation which provides convective delivery and disrupts boundary layers, creating a new 1 mm rule using pump, pipes, and pigments

125
Q

in hexapods and myriapods, the primary function of circulation

A

is the transport of nutrients

126
Q

circulation

A

transport of gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones, immune components - locomotion

127
Q

circulatory pumps

A

muscular heart structure (worm) vs more continuous flow (sea star madreporite) vs pulmonary and systematic system (cephalopods)

128
Q

cephalopods display a convergence of circulatory structures with humans

A

closed system, capillaries, endothelium, systemic heart, branchial hearts

129
Q

circulation and locomotion

A

echinoderms, coordinated movement of tube feet using water vascular system and muscular system by nervous system for highly coordinated movement

130
Q

circulation and gas exchange

A

echinoderms, tube feet critical to gas exchange

131
Q

4 respiratory pigments

A

hemoglobin, hemocyanin, chlorocruorin, hemerythrin

132
Q

hemoglobin

A

red, Fe, free / corpuscular, all major groups

133
Q

hemocyanin

A

blue/green, Cu, free, molluscs and arthropods (larval storage proteins are derivatives of hemocyanin and carry immune function - horsehoe crab blood added to vaccines to suppress immune response)

134
Q

chlorocruorin

A

free, Fe, free, sessile marine polychaetes

135
Q

hemerythrin

A

colourless/pink, Fe, corpuscular, sipuncular (peanut worms) and brachiopods

136
Q

oxygen binding curves

A

partial pressure vs % saturation

137
Q

high affinity for oxygen if

A

max content at low partial pressure

138
Q

low affinity for oxygen if

A

max content at high partial pressure

139
Q

oxygen requirements are related to oxygen affinity

A

low metabolism, hypoxic environment, high affinity

140
Q

effects of rising CO2 levels

A

oceans absorb large amount fo atmospheric CO2, organic matter under glaciers (permafrost) is melting contributing further to CO2 levels, change in water chemistry

141
Q

when CO2 dissolves in water

A

bicarbonate ions decrease and hydrogen ions increase, lowering water pH

142
Q

pH sea water

pH freshwater

A

pH sea water = 8 (more ions available to buffer)

pH freshwater = 5-6

143
Q

pH of oceans has changed from 1751 to present

A

pH decreased 0.1 units, 30% rise in H+ concentration, projections of a further doubling or tripling by 2100

144
Q

animal that require saturated levels fo carbonate ions

A

sea urchin larvae and mollusc larvae

145
Q

sea urchin larvae require saturated levels of carbonate ions

A

skeletal rods (for swimming and feeding) form as a result of complex interactions, active calcium transport into site of calcification (syncytium), metabolic problem in chronically elevated CO2 water: calcium harder to take up and incorporate so more energy is invested into skeletal rod formation and less energy is available for swimming and feeding

146
Q

mollusc larvae require saturated levels of carbonate ions

A

shells are essential for protections a shelter, both CO2 and temperature are stressors (consider the summation of stressors)

147
Q

community structure changes in response to elevated CO2

A

phytoplankton and zooplankton

148
Q

phytoplankton and community structure changes in response to elevated CO2

A

some benefit from increased temperatures, hypoxic zones create dead zones where phytoplankton blooms, eutrophication supports blooms of some species (some of which release toxins), increased phytoplankton biomass leads to increased waste products and increased bacterial decomposer mass, bacterial growth further depletes O2

149
Q

zooplankton and community structure changes in response to elevated CO2

A

copepods, indirectly benefit from elevated CO2 via food web effects, rise in red tides

150
Q

organisms gain and lose significance in the community structures as a result of

A

abiotic filters and biotic filters

151
Q

example of abiotic filter

A

pH

152
Q

example of biotic filter

A

predator

153
Q

CO2 availability has the same impact as

A

predator availability, but these are different types of filters

154
Q

median lethal dose

A

LD50, dose required to kill 50% of test population

155
Q

median lethal time

A

time required to kill 50% of test population

156
Q

sublethal threshold

A

“stress to low oxygen”

157
Q

hypoxic

A

low oxygen conditions, conventional cut-off 2 mg O2/L

158
Q

hypoxic conditions produce

A

a reduction in variance, but crustacean O2 lethal threshold is significantly higher and more variable than other taxa

159
Q

excretion

A

need to excrete catabolic waste, primarily through nitrogenous wastes from protein breakdown

160
Q

4 types of nitrogenous wastes

A

ammonia (NH3, most common, both gaseous and liquid form), urea (polychaetes), uric acid (mammals), guanine

161
Q

excretion in sponges, cnidarians, ctenophores, echinoderms

A

no specialized structures

162
Q

excretion in platyhelminths, nematodes, annelids

A

nephridia

163
Q

excretion in crustaceans

A

antenna gland

164
Q

excretion in insects

A

Malpighian tubules

165
Q

excretion in molluscs and vertebrates

A

kidneys, though term used inconsistently across groups

166
Q

2 main types of excretory systems

A

nephridia and coelomoducts

167
Q

nephridia

A

ectodermally derived, grow in

168
Q

coelomoducts

A

mesodermally derived, grow out

169
Q

2 types of nephridia

A

protonephridia and metanephridia

170
Q

protonephridia

A

tubules, not very specialized, ciliated, flame cells (dead end tubules)

171
Q

metanephridia

A

tubules connect to coelom so can establish a connection between internal and external environment, more specialized, ciliated, blood pressure drives fluid into their structures for more efficient reabsorption

172
Q

coelomoducts are similar to

A

genital ducts, hypothesis: excretory function is secondarily derived so less efficient and confined to certain segments (whereas protonephridia exist on all segments)

173
Q

excretion in leeches

A

nephridia, high protein/volume/inconsistent blood meal requires specialized structures for rapid increases in catabolic protein waste, ammonia waste product requires less energetic investment but demands water, muscular contraction help push blood meal through the body, observe coelomic reduction - coelomic cavity is rich in blood vessels to increase efficiency of absorption

174
Q

excretion in molluscs

A

‘kidney’, large complex metanephridium (though differently derived than vertebrate kidney), associated with pericardial cavity, heart drives maximum pressure through this form of ultrafiltration, renal sac or ‘bladder’, release of primary urine into mantle and then external environment

175
Q

2 types of excretory processes

A

ultrafiltration and active transport

176
Q

ultrafiltration

A

filter membrane, semi-permeable membrane

177
Q

active transport

A

requires energy, transport solute against the electrochemical gradients, secretion of particles into lumen of excretory organ and the reabsorption of water and other compounds (but many compounds chemically similar to nitrogenous waste products)

178
Q

osmolarity

A

number of solutes per volume, often expressed on moles

179
Q

1 mol glucose
1 mol NaCl

[NaCl] human body
[NaCl] salt water

A

1 mol solute
2 mol solute (dissociation of ionic bond)

[NaCl] human body 300 mM
[NaCl] salt water 1000 mM
Humans face net loss of water when immersed.

180
Q

2 ways to combat osmotic problems

A

osmoregulator and osmoconformer

181
Q

osmoregulator

A

maintain internal environment

182
Q

osmoconformer

A

change internal environment with external environment

183
Q

physiological regulation is parameter specific

A

regulating or conforming is parameter-specific

184
Q

physiological regulation of salinity in marine and brackish water invertebrates

A

conformers, but when [salt] decreases there is some regulation of [salt] for physiological function, not conformers in lower and higher [salt] environments

185
Q

physiological regulation of salinity in freshwater invertebrates

A

regulators, will always combat water entering the cell so must use energy to pump water out because ion solution in will always be higher than out, note regulators in lower [salt] environments only

186
Q

regulators and carapace

A

permeability fo the carapace varies dramatically and impacts salt loss

187
Q

spiracles

A

connections between external environment and tracheal system; removes CO2 in heterotrophic metabolism and allows for gas exchange with minimal water loss – can actively open and close, surrounding hair-like structures change air flow

188
Q

closed spiracles: water loss and metabolism

A

decrease water loss in a non-linear relationship to temperature), does not effect metabolism in the short term (enough gases in system to maintain heterotrophic metabolism)

189
Q

xerophilic

A

scorpion - active in dry conditions, tolerant to desiccation

190
Q

hygrophilic

A

snail - active in wet conditions,

tolerant to desiccation

191
Q

cryptozoic

A

potato bug - active in dry conditions, intolerant to desiccation

192
Q

aquatic

A

cnidarians - active in wet conditions, intolerant to desiccation

193
Q

supercooling

A

exposure to temperatures conducive to freezing yet does not freeze, inhibits cell rupturing via anti-freeze proteins actively pumped into cells to inhibit water crystallization

194
Q

2 disadvantages of supercooling

A

metabolism is higher and water loss is greater in the supercooled state than in the frozen state

195
Q

cryptobiosis

A

extremely low metabolism (found in bacteria), allows for freezing

196
Q

anhydrobiosis

A

self-desiccate (reduce body water levels) so as to survive freezing conditions

197
Q

cryptobiosis and anhydrobiosis

A

replace water with sugar which act as anti-freeze compounds to help preserve structures - rotifers, nematodes, tardigrades - evolved before animals, independent evolution

198
Q

waterproofing mechanism in dry environments

A

hexapods, myriapods, arachnids - discrete wax layer, suitable in normal temperature range but limited at some threshold (30˚C) at which point it becomes more porous so more permeable to water

199
Q

namib beetle

A

xerophilic adaptation - cuticle protects from water loss, fog gathering: crawls up dune in Namib desert when fog approaches and raises abdomen, water condenses on hydrophilic bumps on cuticles and water runs down into mouth

200
Q

evolutionary traits evolve as a result of

A

Darwinian adaptation: heritable variability, overproduction, differential survival and reproduction, shifts in gene frequency

201
Q

most widespread form of consumers

A

deposit and suspension feeders

202
Q

5 types of consumers

A

hunters, parasites, deposit feeders, sedimentation interceptors, suspension feeders, grazers/browsers

203
Q

in precambrian times, fossil evidence that the majority of organisms live in and are

A

in sediment (benthic zone) and are deposit feeders, except sponges (suspension feeders)

204
Q

cambrian explosion

A

~600 mya

205
Q

deposit feeders

A

primarily live in the sediment (benthic zone), feed on decomposed organisms including bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms (nematodes, amoeba, and ciliates also live in the same zone so are ingested) so in some ways, an entire microbiome, an entire food web

206
Q

advantages of deposit feeding

A

dead material falls down water column so decomposition vital to support energetic needs

207
Q

disadvantages of deposit feeding

A

below the photic zone, cannot graze on plants

208
Q

2 types of deposit feeders

A

direct and indirect

209
Q

direct deposit feeder

A

non-selective, wholesale consumption

210
Q

indirect deposit feeder

A

selective, mechanisms to sort through sediment prior to ingestion

211
Q

2 animals that exhibit both direct and indirect deposit feeder behaviours

A

sea cucumbers (primarily direct deposit feeders but are sometime indirect, use buccal tentacles for gas exchange and grazing), earthworms (direct deposit feeders when they make their burrows, indirect deposit feeders when they feed on leaves and detritus on the soil surface)

212
Q

examples of indirect deposit feeders

A

amphitrite (spaghetti worms), polychaetes, spoon worms, peanut worms, peppery furrow shells (use of inhalant and exhalant siphons that protrude out of sediment), scaphopod molluscs

213
Q

scaphopod molluscs

A

indirect deposit feeders, introvert structures, tentacles (captacula) with palps stick out of shell, mucous released from papillae on tentacles, ciliary tracts move particles towards mouth (frilly lips)

214
Q

in contrast to molluscs, bivalves are more derived and use

A

filter feeding (suspension feeding)

215
Q

sedimentation interceptors

A

live in or on the sediment (benthic zone) with deposit feeders (for safety) and filter water (more active than suspension feeders) - no specialized structure for deposit feeding

216
Q

examples of sedimentation interceptors

A

crinoids (crawling/stalked and swimming/non-stalked crinoids) are opportunistic feeders that hunt, filter, deposit feed (no specialized structures) and basket stars (primary, secondary, and tertiary tube feet each with different function for feeding, respiration, and movement to direct particles to mouth, papillae release mucous which is also brought to the mouth for ingestion)

217
Q

suspension feeders

A

live out of the sediment and within the plankton, remove particles from the water column, derived function, use flow and capture structures, mucous probably evolved multiple time independently (convergent evolution)

218
Q

suspension feeding is a laborious task

A

little concentration, particles very diverse in size/nutrient values, etc.

219
Q

2 main strategies for suspension feeding

A

muscociliary, setal system

220
Q

muscociliary

A

suspension feeding, combine mucous and ciliary function - active process

221
Q

setal system

A

suspension feeding, “coffee filter” - less active process

222
Q

examples of suspension feeders

A

bivalves (except scaphopods), tunicates, barnacles (bryozoans move locophore (tentacle crown) and use cilia and mucous), brachiopods, sponges (choanocytes), chaetopterus (mucous net sent out into plankton)

223
Q

sponges and suspension feeding

A

choanocytes both create a feeding current (flow) and capture particles

224
Q

chaetopterus and suspension feeding

A

mucous net sent out into plankton, more specialized

225
Q

deposit feeders are limited by

A

food availability

226
Q

suspension feeders are limited by

A

space because food availability is not the limiting factor

227
Q

mucociliary capture in suspension feeders

A

cilia used in suspension feeding, possibly in addition to swimming and orientation in the water column

228
Q

3 types of mucociliary capture in suspension feeders

A

downstream food collection, upstream food collection, ciliary sieving (with mucous papillae)

229
Q

downstream food collection

A

suspension feeding, polychaetes, molluscs, gastropods, power-stroke of cilia transports food directly to mouth using multiple bands of cilia, groove directs food to mouth

230
Q

upstream food collection

A

suspension feeding, thought to belong to deuterostomes because exhibited by brachiopods and echinoderms but brachiopods are no longer considered deuterostomes, mouth upstream of 1 continuous band of cilia creating current

231
Q

ciliary sieving (with mucous papillae)

A

suspension feeding, non vertebrate chordates only, cilia structure completely different from swimming structures, branchial arch in cephalopods are homologized developmentally to combine cephalochordates with deuterostomes

232
Q

phase of a biphasic life cycle that should be used to determine phylogenetic relationships

A

larval stage, symmetry and structures common in larvae (but not adults) better indicate taxa relationships – previous belief that larvae were ancestral traits but sometimes metamorphosis evolved secondarily

233
Q

6 mucociliary capture mechanisms

A

direct interception (may have mechanoreceptors which lead to dynamic response), inertial impaction (disrupt inertial flow), gravitational deposition (falling particles), diffusional deposition (with laminar flow, concentration gradient based on difference in speed), electrostatic attraction, dynamic response of cilia and tentacles

234
Q

plasticity, rather than rigidity, may or may not increase fitness in

A

a variable environment

235
Q

echinopluteus larvae plasticity

A

grow longer arms in low food conditions and shorter arms in high food conditions - has one continuous band of cilia

236
Q

costs of echinopluteus larvae plasticity

A

energetic costs (increased size, but decreased Ca from environment with ocean acidification, and decreased energy available for fecundity), increased visibility to predators

237
Q

benefits of echinopluteus larvae plasticity

A

more food can be collected, protective spine from predators, better swimming capabilities

238
Q

there are limitation to the cost vs benefit approach to develop hypotheses because

A

we are never completely aware or able to assess all cost and benefit traits, evolutionary and proximate constraints exist

239
Q

3 primary lifestyles of hunters

A

pursuit hunters, searchers, and ambush predators

240
Q

pursuit hunters

A

cephalopods, dragonflies, in order to be effective: must be faster than prey, have nervous system adaptations specific t being mobile, specifically sensory adaptations to detect prey

241
Q

advantages of pursuit hunters

A

highly mobile, fast

242
Q

disadvantages of pursuit hunters

A

fast movement is energetically costly and may constrain behaviour, fast movement equates to higher visibility to predators

243
Q

searchers

A

hunters, sea stars, nemerteans, molluscs, in order to be effective: must actively forage (active on a different time scale), have adaptations related to the recognition (eg. sensory receptors in sea star tube feet to minimize time spent hunting), handling, and digestion of prey, possess toxins to immobilize prey

244
Q

advantages of searchers

A

actively moving to avoid predation

245
Q

disadvantages of searchers

A

the energy of a meal has to be greater than the energy invested in searching, handling, and digesting the meal

246
Q

ambush predators

A

hunters, praying mantis, cone snail, in order to be effective: must camouflage, have adaptations related to catching behaviours (fast transition between sedentary and active states), possess toxins to immobilize prey

247
Q

advantages of ambush predators

A

less visible to predators with minimal movement

248
Q

disadvantages of ambush predators

A

short window of opportunity (opportunistic feeders) to kill prey

249
Q

cone snail feeding

A

ambush predator, everts proboscis which possesses harpoon-like structures, which injects toxin (conotoxin, dangerous to humans if the snail preys on fish) to immobilize prey, produce venom in venom bulb (gland) which travels via the venom duct to the radular sac which possesses the harpoon-like structures

250
Q

cone snail venom

A

trialed as cancer therapy drugs; exploit the effects on the human immune system, potential use as pain-killers

251
Q

uropygi (vinegaroons)

A

ambush predators, produce vinegar to immobilize prey, which also aids in digestion

252
Q

7 morphological adaptations for handling prey

A

grasping limbs, eversion of pharynx, inhalant siphon, modified gills, suckers on tentacle arms (cephalopods), suckers with modified hook structures (giant squid), basket structure of cephalic spines with hooks (chaetognaths)

253
Q

3 examples of grasping limbs as morphological adaptations for handling prey

A

pedipalps (arachnids and chelicerates), subchelate legs (praying mantis and some shrimp species), claws (modified chelate legs with fine motor control in crustaceans)

ZOO 3700 (2 decks)

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