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Cognition > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

dualism

A

the idea that mind and body
are fundamentally different substances
or processes

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2
Q

Monism or Materialism:

A

The
universe is made of only one kind of
physical material (“atoms”)

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3
Q

de la Mettrie (1748)

A

“L’homme Machine”
People are machines with mechanical
systems plumbing, ventilation,
temperature control, etc.

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4
Q

Darwin (ca. 1850) :

A 
all	biological	structures	are	
“devices”	that	are	adapted	to	
serve	the	survival	of	the	
organism	
• ->	The	mind	is	a	machine
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5
Q

What is a “machine?”

A

A machine is a process consisting entirely of
physical, material elements that affect each
other causally—that is, via physical processes. we reduce things we DON’T
understand to combinations of things we DO
understand.

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6
Q

mechanistic theory

A

every element is understood in terms of the

combination of simpler, stupider, elements.

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7
Q

homonculus

A

an imaginary “man

inside the head”

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8
Q

Syllogism

A

a chain of reasoning which the conclusion follows from the premises with logical certainty

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9
Q

George Boole:

A

An Investigation of the Laws of
Thought (1854)
•In algebra, we can make statements about numbers
that are true regardless of the specific values of the
numbers:
x + x = 2x
•Boole proposed to do the same thing with propositions
instead of numbers.

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10
Q

Propositions

A

Propositions are statements that are true or false.

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11
Q

Boolean algebra

A

a way of “calculating” with ideas instead

of with numbers, also called Propositional Calculus

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12
Q

logical connectives

A

how we put propositions together

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13
Q

conjunction

A

A∧B “A is true AND B is true”

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14
Q

disjunction

A

A∨B “A is true OR B is true (or both)”

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15
Q

negation

A

~A, “not A” = “A is not true”

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16
Q

implication

A

A → B, “If A is true then B is true”.
(Equivalent to ~(A∧~B), which is equivalent to ~A∨B ….
not really a separate connective)

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17
Q

Charles Babbage

A

1830 - Analytical Engine

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18
Q

Alan Turing

A

Wrote the basis for modern computing, he described a hypothetical computer called a Turing machine.

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19
Q

A Turing machine

A

A Turing machine gets input symbols on an infinite paper tape, and
writes output symbols on the same tape
It can:
• Read symbols to the tape
• Write symbols to the tape
• Move the tape left or right
• Make (logical) conditional decisions about which of the above to do.

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20
Q

algorithm

A

a concrete procedure to solve a particular problem

that is, give a particular output for each input

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21
Q

A universal Turing machine

A

is a Turing machine that can be given the encoding of

another Turing machine and “simulate” it

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22
Q

Turing test

A

Can a machine “think”?
or a better yet:
What observable behavior would count as thinking?

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23
Q

Church-Turing thesis

A

Anything that can be computed by any system can be computed by a
computer (a Turing machine)
Any process you can create an algorithm for can be carried out on a
computer.
Any process you can’t create an algorithm for — you don’t fully
understand.

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24
Q

Logic gates

A

Same as connectives,

but as a piece of a circuit

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25
Q

Neuron

A

Neuron integrates excitation and inhibition to get total net activation;
If activation is above threshold, it “spikes” (sends an action potential down the axon)
After firing, the neuron resets (~2 or
). If it is still being stimulated over threshold, it fires again. Hence the firing rate indicates the
level of activation.

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26
Q

McCulloch & Pitts:

A

Logical circuits and
artificial neural networks are equivalent
• You can make logic gates out of neurons
• You can make neurons out of logic gates
• Neural networks are computationally
equivalent to computers/Turing machines
• The brain is a giant computing device

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27
Q

Empiricism

A 
(nurture) based	on	experience
Blank	slate/	Tabula	Rasa
Associationism	
Behaviorism		
General	learning	mechanism
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28
Q

Rationalism

A 
(nature) based	on	reason
	innate	knowledge	
Nativism	
Cognitivism
domain-specific	innate	modules
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29
Q

Watson: Behaviorism

B. F. Skinner

A

Stimuli / Response All learning is conditioned responses to stimuli

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30
Q

Behaviorism

A

Mind starts as a blank slate
- Learn associations between behaviors and reinforcement
(reward) — i.e. stimulus and response
- Do more of the behaviors that are reinforced (Law of
Effect - Thorndike)
- Only mechanism of learning is modification of S-R pairings

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31
Q

• Implications of both behaviorism/empiricism

A

All knowledge comes from experience
- One general learning mechanism shared among all
domains of learning, all species, all ages - rats, children,…

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32
Q

Chomsky (1959)

A

argued that S-R reinforcement was mathematically
insufficient to explain behavior that involves an infinite number of
possible “responses”

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33
Q

Occipital lobe

A

vision

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34
Q

Temporal lobe

A

audition etc

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35
Q

Parietal lobe

A

attention etc

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36
Q

Frontal lobe

A

executive function, decision making

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37
Q

Broca’s area

A

responsible for speech, left hemisphere

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38
Q

A split-brain patient

A 
Left	hemisphere	sees	
the	RIGHT	visual	
hemifield	and	controls	
the	RIGHT	arm
Right	hemisphere	sees	
the	LEFT	visual	
hemifield	and	controls	
the	LEFT	arm
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39
Q

Contralateral:

A

opposite side

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40
Q

Ipsilateral

A

same side

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41
Q

Neuroimaging

A

brain scans

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42
Q

PET

A

positron emission tomography

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43
Q

fMRI

A 
function	magnetic	resonance	
imaging
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44
Q

BOLD signal

A

Blood Oxygen
Level Dependent; shows where the blood
is going

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45
Q

veridical

A

(true) representation

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46
Q

constancy

A 
A	constancy	is	an	apparent	
invariance	of	some	property	
of	the	world	despite	
enormous	variation	in	the	
corresponding	property	in	the	
visual	image
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47
Q

shape constancy

A

Apparent shape
remains constant
despite changes in
3D pose

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48
Q

Lightness constancy

A

Apparent surface reflectance remains

constant despite changes in illumination

49
Q

Color constancy

A

•Apparent surface color remains
constant despite changes in illuminant
color

50
Q

Size constancy

A

Apparent physical size remains constant despite enormous

changes in retinal size as distance changes

51
Q

Cones

A

3 types:
short, medium & long
wavelength

52
Q

Rods

A

just 1 type, but more

sensitive, faster response

53
Q

Fovea

A

central area of retina with high density of
photoreceptors, so high resolution. Mostly cones. The
fovea is what you point at something when you “look at it”

54
Q

Periphery

A

low density of photoreceptors – mostly rods

55
Q

Color

A

Physics: All light has a wavelength (=1/frequency). Pure
lights of different wavelengths appear different colors.
Note: All light is “colored”
Psychology: But there is more to color than wavelength.
- Most surfaces are mixtures of different wavelengths.

56
Q

reflectance function

A

The reflectance function of a surface is a characteristic

of the surface, just like the reflectance of a surface.

57
Q

What is the relative response of the 3 cone

types?

A

The brain infers the reflectance function from the ratio of

responses of the 3 types.

58
Q

Opponent processes

A

Blue-Yellow, Red-Green,

(hue)Light-dark, (Saturation)

59
Q

lateral inhibition

A

“Spot detector”

60
Q

Perceptual grouping

A

Perceptual grouping is the organization of
the raw elements of visual image into
larger units, like contours, surfaces, and
objects.

61
Q

Gestalt perceptual organization

A

“The whole is different from the sum of its

parts

62
Q

Figure and ground

A

Each boundary separates one
region that is closer (figure)
and another that is farther
(ground)

63
Q

Border ownership

A

The figural (blue) side of the boundary “owns” the
boundary, because
1. the figure actually ends there, while
2. the ground side continues behind the figure

64
Q

Cells in Visual Area 2 (V2) are sensitive to

A

figure/ground

65
Q

Good continuation

A

Elongated contours are
created by communication
among adjacent receptive
fields

66
Q

Prägnanz

A

prefer the simplest or most

coherent interpretation

67
Q

Principle of proximity

A

close objects are grouped

68
Q

Principle of similarity

A

similar objects are grouped

69
Q

Principle of common fate

A

objects moving together are grouped

70
Q

Generalized cylinder

A

axis (= space curve)

• radius (= variable function)

71
Q

Cylinder

A

axis (= straight line)

• radius (= constant)

72
Q

Canonic view

A

preferred view, when an object can be identified most easily

73
Q

Viewer-centered coordinate system

A

The tail is to the right of the wings)

→ implies viewpoint dependence

74
Q

Object-centered coordinate system

A

(The tail is at the rear of the body)

→ implies viewpoint independence

75
Q

Geons

A

(=“geometric ions”)
Individual part types that are combined in various
ways to form unique 3D object models

76
Q

Object recognition is

A

viewpoint-dependent

77
Q

Dichotic listening

A

Each ear gets a separate channel
Subjects typically can follow one but not the
other

78
Q

Cocktail party effect

A

Highly salient stimuli can get through the nonattended

channel

79
Q

Cueing experiments

A

Subject never moves their eyes
Cue is valid on 80% of trials, invalid on 20%
Dot detection is faster in cued location.

80
Q

Attention is

A

like a spotlight that moves

about the visual field, enhancing perception

81
Q

popout

A

• Some visual features seem to be detected (no attention required)
everywhere in parallel

82
Q

Perception without attention

A

Some visual features seem to be detected
everywhere in parallel
Objects with the target feature “pop out”
without apparent search

83
Q

Visual search paradigm

A 
Response	Time	(RT)	to	detect	the	target	as	a	
function	of	the	number	of	distractors
84
Q

Conjunction search

A

a visual search process that focuses on identifying a previously requested target surrounded by distractors possessing one or more common visual features with the target itself.

Feature	search:	
Target	has	feature	X	
Distractors	don’t	
No	effect	of	#distractors	
→	Parallel	search
85
Q

Parallel search

A 
Searches all areas at once
Feature	search:	
Target	has	feature	X	
Distractors	don’t	
No effect of distractors due to popout
86
Q

Serial search

A

Searches one area at a time, requires attention
Target: feature conjunction (shares a feature with distractors)
Linear effect of #distractors (the more distractors, the less likely you are to find the object)

87
Q

What combines in the attentional window?

A

feature maps (orientation, color, size, motion, etc.)

88
Q

The success of Samuels’ checker program suggests that

A

computer programs can exceed the abilities of their programmer

89
Q

If an OR gate gets two inputs and one is ON and one is OFF, what is the output?

A

ON

90
Q

One of Turing’s examples of an “argument from a disability” is that

A

a computer can’t enjoy strawberries and cream

91
Q

If an AND gate gets two inputs and both are ON, what is the output?

A

ON

92
Q

Consider the logical expression “1+1=2” OR “1+1=3”. Using the Boolean definition of OR we discussed in class, is this expression TRUE?

A

Yes

93
Q

If a neuron has two excitatory inputs, and has a threshold of 1

A

it acts like an OR gate

94
Q

One of my cats is always nervous. According to Locke, this is probably due to

A

her experience as a kitten

95
Q

What does a split-brain patients left hemisphere see?

A

the right visual hemifield

96
Q

Behaviorism assumes that learning proceeds by learned associations

A

between stimulus and response

97
Q

If you ask a split brain patient what she sees, she is most likely to name

A

what is in her right visual hemifield

98
Q

A single, general mechanism that works the same way in all learning contexts is an idea associated with

A

behaviorism

99
Q

The two hemispheres are connected by the

A

corpus callosum

100
Q

To empiricists, the human mind begins as a

A

blank slate

101
Q

Behaviorism descends from

A

Empiricism

102
Q

‘Depth ambiguity’ refers to the fact that

A

the depth dimension is missing in the proximal stimulus

103
Q

A grandmother cell is

A

a neuron that only knows about your grandmother

104
Q

Photoreceptors are found in

A

the retina

105
Q

Which are more sensitive to light?

A

Rods

106
Q

The Ames room illustrates a

A

failure of size constancy

107
Q

Where is the density of photoreceptors the highest?

A

The fovea

108
Q

A brain scan indicating the localization of a particular cognitive function probably shows

A

brain activity in an experimental task

109
Q

A mental representation that matches the distal stimulus is

A

veridical (true)

110
Q

“Inverse optics” corresponds to the

A

formation of the distal image of the retina

111
Q

Which side completes behind the nearer object?

A

Ground

112
Q

Dark red and light blue differ in both

A

hue and saturation

113
Q

Edge detector cells are found in

A

primary visual cortex

114
Q

If you stare at a blue path for a minute and then look at a white field, what color will the afterimage be?

A

Yellow

115
Q

An off-center-surround cell responds most to

A

dark spot on a light background

116
Q

An on-center-surround cell responds most to

A

a bright spot on a dark background

117
Q

What principle says to prefer the most coherent interpretation of the proximal stimulus?

A

Pragnanz

118
Q

The principle of common fate says to

A

group items with common motion together

Cognition (3 decks)

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