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Cognition > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q

phonology

A

study of sounds of language - consonants , vowels, variations among language

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2
Q

Morphology

A

construction of words out of units that carry meaning (morphemes)

roots, prefixes, suffixes, affixes

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3
Q

Syntax (grammar)

A

ordering of words to form sentences

The dog bit the man vs. the man bit the dog

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4
Q

Semantics

A

meaning and logical form

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5
Q

Language involves

A 
reducing thoughts (which may not be linguistic) to an ordering of sounds
...and decoding the order to infer the original thoughts
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6
Q

Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is used

A

to reconstruct the corresponding distances in the mental space

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7
Q

parse

A

“assign a tree structure”

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8
Q

prescriptive

A

how to do it :right” - Don’t split infinitives! Don’t use “ain’t”! Don’t end up a sentence with a preposition

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9
Q

descriptive

A

systematic, scientific characterizations of how it is actually done
Descriptives attempt to describe language scientifically

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10
Q

deduction

A

logically certain reasoning

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11
Q

induction

A

probable reasoning

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12
Q

reasoning

A

going from premises (existing beliefs) to conclusions (new beliefs)

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13
Q

modus ponens

A

affirming the antecedent a -> b (if a then b)

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14
Q

parallel

A

many nodes running at the same time

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15
Q

distributed

A

knowledge is represented as weights on the connections

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16
Q

oracle

A

compares the actual output to the target output (supervised learning)

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17
Q

fuzzy boundaries

A

Objects within them have a family resemblance but no clear definition

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18
Q

classical view of categories

A

In the classical view, categories have clear definitions

A bachelor is an unmarried adult male person

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19
Q

antecedent

A

in the implication, the thing that if it’s true then the other is true

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20
Q

consequent

A

in an implication, this is true if the antecedent is true

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21
Q

The “prototype” (aka fuzzy aka family resemblance) view of human concepts

A

Mental concepts exhibit degrees of membership, called typicality
And are defined by their central tendencies, called prototypes
Eg birds usually have feathers, fly, lay eggs, sing, make nests, live in trees - but not necessarily

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22
Q

modus tollens

A 
A->b if a then b
~b (false)
-------
~a is false
if b is false, and b follows a, a must be false
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23
Q

exemplar model

A

individuals make category judgments by comparing new stimuli with instances already stored in memory. The instance stored in memory is the “exemplar”.

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24
Q

subjective expected utility theory

A

goal of human action is to seek pleasure and avoid pain

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25
Q

subjective utility

A

a calculation based on the individual’s judged weightings of utility (value) rather than on objective criteria

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26
Q

subjective probability

A

a calculation based on the individual’s estimates of likelihood, rather than on objective statistical computations

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27
Q

heuristics

A

mental shortcuts that lighten the cognitive load of making decision

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28
Q

bounded rationality

A

we are rational, but within limits

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29
Q

satisficing

A

we consider options one by one, and then select one that is satisfactory or just good enough to meet our minimum level of acceptibility

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30
Q

elimination by aspects

A

we eliminate alternatives by focusing on aspects of each alternative, one at a time

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31
Q

temporal discounting

A

subjective devaluation of future value (above and beyond interest and uncertainty)

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32
Q

risk aversion

A

preference for a certain gain over an uncertain loss

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33
Q

certain gain

A

most people prefer the sure thing

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34
Q

expected value

A

the long-run value of something

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35
Q

rational price

A

expected value

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36
Q

availability heuristic

A

we make judgments on the basis of how easily we can call to mind what we perceive as relevant instances of a phenomenon

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37
Q

illusory correlation

A

we are predisposed to see particular events or attributes and categories as going together, even when they do not

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38
Q

conjunction fallacy

A

individual gives a higher estimate for a subset events than for the larger set of events containing the given subset

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39
Q

sunk-cost fallacy

A

represents the decision to continue to invest in something simply because one has invested in it before and hopes to recover one’s investment

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40
Q

opportunity costs

A

the price paid for availing oneself of certain opportunities

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41
Q

deductive reasoning

A

process of reasoning from one or more general statements regarding what is known to reach a logically certain conclusion

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42
Q

proposition

A

an assertion, which may be either true or false

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43
Q

premises

A

propositions about which arguments are made

44
Q

conditional reasoning

A

the reasoner must draw a conclusion based on an if-then proposition

45
Q

deductive validity

A

logical soundness

46
Q

modus tollens

A

denying the consequent

47
Q

syllogisms

A

deductive arguments that involve drawing conclusions from two premises

48
Q

categorical syllogism

A

the premises state something about the category memberships of the terms

49
Q

inductive reasoning

A

the process of reasoning from specific facts or observations to reach a likely conclusion that may explain the facts

50
Q

causal inferences

A

how people make judgments about whether something causes something else

51
Q

symmetry

A

distance(a,b) = d(b,a)

52
Q

Triangle inequality

A

shortest distance between two points on a straight line

d(a,b) + d(b,c) >/= d(a,c)

53
Q

does similarity obey the distance axioms?

A

No (symmetry and triangle inequality)

54
Q

featural similarity can be __________ and can ______ the triangle inequality, like

A

asymmetric, violate - like human similarity judgments

55
Q

language is

A

a way of communicating

56
Q

Chomsky’s review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior argued

A

that the infinite compositionality and productivity of language makes this explanation inadequate

57
Q

competence

A

the abstract knowledge held by a “competent” speaker of the language: what you must know to distinguish sentences from non-sentences

58
Q

performance

A

how it works in practice: the details that deviate from the ideal competence, and the actual mechanisms for carrying it out (speaking and understanding)

59
Q

pragmatics

A

practical aspects of conversation (what am I supposed to say next?)

60
Q

generative grammar

A

system for producing all and only the legal structure in the given language

61
Q

____ ____________ experiments seemed to confirm the “psychological reality” of syntax boundaries

A

tone localization

62
Q

rewrite rules

A

describe ways in which certain symbols can be rewritten as other symbols

63
Q

parse (syntax)

A

assign a tree structure

64
Q

principle of minimal attachment

A

for each new phrase, attach it to the existing tree in the simplest way possible

65
Q

Garden path sentences

A

a grammatically correct sentence that starts in such a way that a reader’s most likely interpretation will be incorrect; the reader is lured into a parse that turns out to be a dead end or yields a clearly unintended meaning

66
Q

phonemes

A

individual sound classes (tooth = /t/ /oo/ /th/

67
Q

Phonemes are distinguished by a number of parameters

A

manner of articulation, place of articulation, voicing characteristics

68
Q

place of articulation

A

bilabial (p,b) vs labiodental (f,v) vs various other types

69
Q

manner of articulation

A

stop (p,b,t,d) vs fricative (f,s,th) vs various other types

70
Q

voicing characteristics

A

voiced/voiceless: f/v. s/z, th/th

voice onset time (vot)

71
Q

voice onset time (vot)

A

when the voicing starts relative to the onset of the articulation

72
Q

after the critical period for learning, speakers are sensitive to distinctions ________ categories, but “deaf” to distinctions ______ their native categories

A

between, within

73
Q

Early network models

A

Pandemonium and Perceptron

74
Q

Parallel

A

Many nodes that run at the same time

75
Q

distributed

A

knowledge is represented as weights on the connections

76
Q

Back-propagation algorithm (connectionism)

A
  1. Feed an input through the network, obtain an output
  2. an oracle compare the actual output to the target output (supervised learning)
  3. using the “error” (discrepancy), update the weights on all the connections
77
Q

Parallel distributed processing

A

input layer - > hidden layer -> output layer

78
Q

ALCOVE model of categorization

A

Nodes represent exemplars

Changing the weights (learning) means changing which stimulus features tend to activate which exemplars and thus which categories

Stimulus dimension nodes -> learned attention strengths - > exemplar nodes -> learned association weights -> category nodes

79
Q

Past tense neural network

A

Learns the correct input-output by backpropagation

in a parallel distributed fashion

without rules

without morphemes

without any distinction between regulars and irregulars

80
Q

McClelland and Rumelhart proposed to explain the most rule-like and symbolic phenomenon _______ _____

A

without rules, thus past tense learning would be an application of general learning mechanisms not specific to language

81
Q

Symbol systems side (connectionism wars, rationalist/nativist)

A

the brain uses rules operating on symbols to understand the world

different learning mechanisms in different domains

some knowledge is innate

connectionist systems can’t represent the full infinite productivity of human thought

82
Q

Connectionist side (connectionism wars, empiricist, associationist)

A

rules and symbols are just epiphenomenal (side effects)

all knowledge is implicit in the connections between neurons

one general mechanism explains learning in all domains

only connectionism systems are biologically plausible

83
Q

reasoning

A

going from premises (existing beliefs) to conclusions (new beliefs)

84
Q

interference

A

competition between items, decreasing the likelihood of consolidation

85
Q

rehearsal

A

repetition of an item to facilitate consolidation

86
Q

encoding

A

representation of information in order to facilitate storage

87
Q

consolidation

A

movement of information from working memory to long-term memory

88
Q

primacy effect

A

suggests that rehearsal is required to consolidate items into long term memory

early items are recalled better (because of less interference)

89
Q

recency effect

A

last few items are recalled better (because they are still in working memory)

suggests that items are temporarily held in a small, short-term buffer

90
Q

dunning-kruger effect

A

overconfidence bias

91
Q

library metaphor

A

access cues are like indexes in the card catalog

92
Q

what is forgetting?

A

failure to consolidate vs. failure to retrieve

interference among access cues - generally not “decay”

93
Q

Declarative memory

A

knowledge of “facts”

94
Q

episodic memory

A

personal experiences; subjective point of view

95
Q

procedural memory

A

how to do things; especially motor skills

96
Q

mental imagery

A

memory for visual appearance

97
Q

What is a “chunk”?

A

a link to long-term memory

a pattern or group

98
Q

Capacity of visual short-term memory

A

7+/- 2 items, or 3+/- 1 chunks

99
Q

imagistic representation

A

stores the sensory experience

100
Q

propositional representation

A

stores the abstract relation (under(cat,chair)

101
Q

Mental rotation

A

involves a mental analog of physical rotation

a spatially organized analog of a real picture is progressively transformed

it is different from propositional or declarative info because it encodes info that hasn’t been verbalized

102
Q

mental image

A

representation of a visual scene

stored in ltm

retrieved and placed in a short-term visual buffer

examined by the visual system

103
Q

mental scanning

A

mental distance is an analog is actual distance

104
Q

mental imagery (kosslyn)

A

representations of mental images are quasi-pictorial analogs of real images

evaluation is performed by part of the visual system

105
Q

mental imagery (pylyshyn)

A

representations of images are propositional or descriptive

scanning time results are due to cognitive expectations of subjects

106
Q

association networks

A

knowledge is stored in the associations (locke, freud)

107
Q

hierarchical representation of knowledge

A

Collins and Quillian semantic network: superordinate to subordinate - living thing -> is_a animal -> is_a bird -> robin -> has_property red, sings

Cognition (3 decks)

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