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SSH 301 > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Why is research a dirty word?

A
  • Linked with imperialism and colonialism
  • Often at the expense of Indigenous Peoples
  • Creation of the “other”
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2
Q

What is a theory?

A

An explanation of observed regularities or patterns

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3
Q

What is the purpose of research?

A
  • Assess the adequacy of a social theory
  • Gather info to create a social theory
  • Understand social problems
  • Explore the personal experience
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4
Q

Middle range theory

A
  • Limited scope
  • Directly testable
    e. g. Durkheim’s theory of suicide, theory of relative deprivation
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5
Q

Grand theories

A
  • General and abstract
  • Not directly testable
  • Structural functionalism
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6
Q

What is the deductive approach?

A
  • Used in social theory

- Theory is established then tested

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7
Q

What is the inductive approach?

A
  • Less often used in social theory
  • Gather data then establish a theory
  • Sometimes iterative
  • Leads to empirical generalization
  • “Grounded theory”
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8
Q

What are the epistemological considerations?

A

1) Positivism
2) Interpretivism
3) Critical approaches

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9
Q

What is positivism?

A
  • Epistemological consideration
  • Facts must be able to be seen or heard
  • Science should proceed through the development of hypotheses and hypothesis testing
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10
Q

What is interpretivism?

A
  • Epistemological consideration
  • Focus on subjective meanings of people’s actions
  • Understand the social world from an actor’s point of view
  • Tries to create “empathetic understandings of human behaviour”
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11
Q

What are critical approaches?

A
  • Epistemological consideration
  • Argues that the purpose of research is to rid the world of suffering and is not value free
  • Should be action oriented
  • Marx: knowledge should be used to understand and change social reality
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12
Q

What are the ontological considerations?

A
  • Ontology is the study of how we exist
  • Objectivist perspective
  • Constructivist perspective
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13
Q

What is the objectivist perspective?

A

Do social phenomena have an objective reality independent of our perceptions?

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14
Q

What is the constructivist perspective?

A

Is what passes for reality merely a set of mental constructions?

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15
Q

What is reflexivity?

A

The awareness of values and decisions having an impact on research

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16
Q

What are the 3 positions of values in research?

A

1) Should be value-free
2) Cannot be value-free but researchers should be open about them
3) Researchers should use their values to direct and interpret their research

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17
Q

What is the Milgram Experiment?

A
  • Obedience to authority figures
  • To understand Nazis during the Holocaust
  • Unethical due to extreme emotional distress
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18
Q

What is nomothetic research?

A
  • Explanations involve attributions of cause and effect, in general laws and principles
  • Might be developed through particular research subjects and extrapolated to a larger population
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19
Q

What is idiographic research?

A
  • A rich description of a person or group & seeks to explain the particular
  • Not meant to apply to people outside the study
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20
Q

What are the criteria for evaluating social research?

A

1) Reliability
2) Replicability
3) Validity

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21
Q

What is reliability?

A
  • A criterium for evaluating social research
  • Results remain the same each time a particular measurement technique is used on the same subject
  • Results do not have external influence
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22
Q

What is replicability?

A
  • A criterium for evaluating social research
  • Results remain the same if others repeat all/part of the study
  • Procedures used are sound and spelt out
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23
Q

What is validity?

A
  • A criterium for evaluating social research
  • The integrity of the results
  • Measurement validity: are you measuring what you want to measure?
  • Internal validity: whether causation has been established
  • External validity: Are findings applicable to situations outside the research environment?
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24
Q

According to Lincoln & Guba (1985), what should qualitative work be measured by?

A
  • Credibility (internal validity)
  • Transferability (external validity)
  • Dependability (reliability)
  • Conformity (replicability)
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25
Q

What are the 5 research designs?

A

1) Experiments
2) Quasi-experiments
3) Cross-sectional
4) Longitudal
5) Case study

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26
Q

Experiments

A
  • Rare in sociology & political science
  • Comparison between groups
    e. g. Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) from the text
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27
Q

Quasi-experiments

A
  • Internal validity is harder to establish

- “Natural experiments”

28
Q

Cross-sectional

A
  • Taking observations at a point in time
  • No manipulation
  • To detect patterns of association
  • Issues of internal validity: what is the cause in a relationship
29
Q

Longitudal

A
  • Examined at a particular time, then again later
  • Time-order changes, to establish directions of causation
  • Panel study: same people are studied at different times
  • Cohort study: people sharing the same experiences are studied at different times
30
Q

What are the 3 types of case studies?

A
  • Critical (illustrates the conditions under which a certain hypothesis holds or does not)
  • Extreme/unique (unusual cases that help understand common ones)
  • Revelatory (a case/context that has never been studied before)
31
Q

What is the nature of qualitative research?

A
  • usually inductive
  • usually interpretist
  • usually constructivist
  • takes a natural perspective
32
Q

What are the kinds of qualitative research?

A
  • Ethnography/participant observation
  • Interviewing
  • Focus groups
  • Discourse and conversation analysis
  • Analysis of texts and documents
  • Participatory action research
33
Q

What are the steps of qualitative research?

A

1) Establish a general research question
2) Select a relevant site and subjects
3) Collect the data
4) Interpret the data
5) Conceptual and theoretical work
6) Findings and conclusions

34
Q

What are the main goals of qualitative research?

A
  • Seeing through the eyes of the people studied (empathy and naturalism)
  • Emphasis on process
  • Flexibility and limited structure
35
Q

What are the critiques of qualitative research?

A
  • Too subjective
  • Difficult to replicate
  • Problems of generalization
36
Q

Probability sampling

A

Random sampling, intended to keep sample error to a minimum

37
Q

Non-probability sampling

A

Some units of the population are more likely to be selected than others

38
Q

Sampling error

A

Error of estimation when there is a difference in characteristics between the population and sample

39
Q

Types of probability sampling

A
  • Simple random sample
  • Systematic sample
  • Stratified random sample
  • Multi-stage cluster sample
40
Q

Types of non-probability sampling

A
  • Convenience sample
  • Snowball sample
  • Quota sample
  • Structured observation and sample
41
Q

“Black Like Me” John Howard Griffin (1959)

A
  • What is it like to be discriminated against over something you have no control of (skin colour)
  • “became” black and went through an identity crisis
42
Q

“The Tearoom Trade” Laud Humphreys (1970)

A
  • Impersonal sex in public spaces
  • Gained trust of participants by acting as lookout
  • Is this a violation of privacy?
43
Q

What are the policies in Canada for ethical research?

A
  • Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

- Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (TCP2, 2010, 2014)

44
Q

TCP2

A
  • Provides for variation in research methods
  • Respect for persons
  • Concern for welfare
  • Justice
45
Q

Respect for persons

A
  • subjects are not “objects”
  • participants are given an info sheet/consent form
  • deception should only be used as a last resort
46
Q

Concern for welfare

A
  • avoid harm, embarrassment, inadvertent identification
  • covert research: benefits must outweigh harm, permission may be sought after the fact
  • secondary participants
  • researchers may have to report behaviours
47
Q

Justice

A
  • no one should be exploited for research
  • no one should be systematically excluded from the benefits
  • inclusivity
  • intersubjectivity
  • paid participation: may induce risks of abnormal behaviour
48
Q

Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment

A
  • Secret study by the US PHS to study the progression of syphilis without treatment
  • Consent was never obtained, participants were deceived
  • 1974: National Research Act was passed
49
Q

Advantages of structured interview

A
  • reduced risk of variation due to error

- enhances accuracy and ease of processing data

50
Q

Disadvantages of structured interview

A
  • interviewer effects
51
Q

True/real variation

A

Attributed to the concept being measured

52
Q

Variation due to error

A

Attributed to the interviewing process

  • Intra-interviewer: interviewer is inconsistent
  • Inter-interviewer: inconsistency amongst different interviewers
53
Q

Advantages of questionnaires

A
  • Cheap, quick, easy to administer
  • No interviewer effects
  • Social desirability reduced
54
Q

Disadvantages of questionnaires

A
  • greater risk of missing data

- order effects may occur

55
Q

Response set

A
  • Respondent problem
  • A series of items responded to in the same way, suggesting alternative motivations (acquiescence, social desirably, laziness/boredom)
56
Q

Advantages of open questions

A
  • respondents can answer on their own terms
  • allow for unusual responses
  • more genuine (no suggestion)
  • good for exploring new areas of research
57
Q

Disadvantages of open questions

A
  • Time-consuming (recording and coding)

- recording inaccuracies

58
Q

Advantages of closed questions

A
  • easy to process answers
  • standardization allows comparison of answers
  • no interpretation required by the researcher
59
Q

Disadvantages of closed questions

A
  • loss of spontaneity
  • categories cannot overlap
  • difficult to make exhaustive
  • respondents may differ in their interpretation of wording
  • respondents may not have an answer that they identify with
60
Q

Pre-coding closed questions

A
  • themes/categories are decided upon before data collection

- data is collected first then sorted into pre-set categories for open questions

61
Q

Types of questions

A
  • personal factual questions
  • factual questions about others
  • factual questions about entity/event
  • questions about attitudes
  • questions about beliefs
  • questions about knowledge
62
Q

Specific rules for designing questions

A
  • avoid long questions
  • avoid double-barrelled questions
  • avoid double negatives
  • ensure symmetry
  • ensure answers are balanced
  • avoid “don’t know”, use filter
63
Q

Question order

A
  • all respondents should receive questions in the same order unless testing for order effects
  • opinion and attitude questions should perceive behaviour and knowledge questions
64
Q

Designing the questionnaire

A
  • provide a clear presentation
  • choose vertical or horizontal answers as appropriate
  • provide clear instructions
  • keep questions and answers on the same page
65
Q

Vignette questions

A
  • scenarios

- creates distance between question and respondent

SSH 301 (2 decks)

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