Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
Psychology
A
The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external environment
2
Q
The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external environment
A
Psychology
3
Q
Scientific method
A
requires that psychological conclusions be based on evidence collected according to the principles of this method (consists of a set of orderly steps used to analyze and solve problems)
4
Q
requires that psychological conclusions be based on evidence collected according to the principles of this method (consists of a set of orderly steps used to analyze and solve problems)
A
Scientific method
5
Q
Behaviour
A
means by which organisms adjust to their environment…it is ACTION
6
Q
means by which organisms adjust to their environment…it is ACTION
A
Behaviour
7
Q
Mental
A
those cognitive processes that individuals use to influence their action
8
Q
those cognitive processes that individuals use to influence their action
A
Mental
9
Q
Goals of Psychology
A
Describe, Explain, Predict and Control what happens
10
Q
Metaphysical claims
A
Assertation about the world that is not testable
11
Q
Assertation about the world that is not testable
A
Metaphysical claims
12
Q
Pseudoscience
A
set of claims that seems scientific but isn’t
13
Q
set of claims that seems scientific but isn’t
A
Pseudoscience
14
Q
Confirmation bias
A
Tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and deny, dismiss or distort evidence that contradicts them
15
Q
Tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and deny, dismiss or distort evidence that contradicts them
A
Confirmation bias
16
Q
Tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them
A
Belief perseverance
17
Q
Belief perseverance
A
Tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them
18
Q
Tendency to perceive meaningful connections among unrelated phenomena.
A
Apophenia
19
Q
Apophenia
A
Tendency to perceive meaningful connections among unrelated phenomena.
20
Q
Tendency to perceive meaningful images in meaningless visual stimuli.
A
Pareidolia
21
Q
Pareidolia
A
Tendency to perceive meaningful images in meaningless visual stimuli.
22
Q
Emotional reasoning fallacy
A
Error of using our emotions as guides for evaluating the validity of a claim.
23
Q
Error of using our emotions as guides for evaluating the validity of a claim.
A
Emotional reasoning fallacy
24
Q
Bandwagon fallacy
A
Error of assuming that a claim is correct just because many people believe it
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Error of assuming that a claim is correct just because many people believe it
Bandwagon fallacy
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Either-or fallacy
Error of framing a question as though we can answer it in only one of two extreme ways
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Error of framing a question as though we can answer it in only one of two extreme ways
Either-or fallacy
28
Not me fallacy
Error of believing we are immune from errors (in thinking) that afflict other people
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Error of believing we are immune from errors (in thinking) that afflict other people
Not me fallacy
30
Appeal to authority fallacy
Error of accepting a claim merely because an authority figure endorses it
31
Error of accepting a claim merely because an authority figure endorses it
Appeal to authority fallacy
32
Genetic fallacy
Error of confusing the correctness of a belief with its origins or genesis
Ex: the belief was influenced by the time period, therefore cannot be considered valid
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Error of confusing the correctness of a belief with its origins or genesis
Ex: the belief was influenced by the time period, therefore cannot be considered valid
Genetic fallacy
34
Argument from antiquity fallacy
Error of assuming that a belief must be valid just because it's been around for a long time
35
Error of assuming that a belief must be valid just because it's been around for a long time
Argument from antiquity fallacy
36
Argument from adverse consequences fallacy
Error of confusing the validity of an idea with its potential real-world consequences
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Error of confusing the validity of an idea with its potential real-world consequences
Argument from adverse consequences fallacy
38
Appeal to ignorance fallacy
Error of assuming that a claim must be true because no one has shown it to be false
39
Error of assuming that a claim must be true because no one has shown it to be false
Appeal to ignorance fallacy
40
Naturalistic fallacy
Error of inferring a moral judgement from a scientific fact
41
Error of inferring a moral judgement from a scientific fact
Naturalistic fallacy
42
Hasty generalization fallacy
Error of drawing a conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence
43
Error of drawing a conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence
Hasty generalization fallacy
44
Circular reasoning fallacy
Error of basing a claim on the same claim reworded in slightly different terms
45
Error of basing a claim on the same claim reworded in slightly different terms
Circular reasoning fallacy
46
Scientific skepticism
approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them
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approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them
Scientific skepticism
48
Critical Thinking
set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion
49
set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion
Critical Thinking
50
Six principles of scientific thinking
- Ruling out rival hypotheses
- Correlation vs. Causation
- Falsifiability
- Replicability
- Extraordinary claims
- Occam's Razor
51
Ruling out rival hypotheses
findings consistent with several hypotheses require additional research to eliminate these hypotheses.
52
findings consistent with several hypotheses require additional research to eliminate these hypotheses.
Ruling out rival hypotheses
53
Correlation vs. causation
a phrase used in statistics to emphasize that two things are associated with each other doesn’t mean that one causes the other.
54
a phrase used in statistics to emphasize that two things are associated with each other doesn’t mean that one causes the other.
Correlation vs. causation
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Falsifiability
claims must be capable of being disproved.
56
claims must be capable of being disproved.
Falsifiability
57
Replicability
a finding must be capable of being duplicated by independent researchers following the same “recipe”/“formula”.
58
a finding must be capable of being duplicated by independent researchers following the same “recipe”/“formula”.
Replicability
59
Extraordinary claims
the more a claim contradicts what we already know, the more persuasive the evidence must be before we should accept it.
60
the more a claim contradicts what we already know, the more persuasive the evidence must be before we should accept it.
Extraordinary claims
61
Occam’s razor
if two hypotheses explain a phenomenon equally well, we should generally select the simpler one.
62
if two hypotheses explain a phenomenon equally well, we should generally select the simpler one.
Occam’s razor
63
Who is the founder of Structuralism?
Wilhelm Wundt and his assistant, Edward Titchener.
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Wilhelm Wundt and his assistant, Edward Titchener.
Who is the founder of Structuralism?
65
Wilhelm Wundt
Opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. This was the first laboratory dedicated to psychology, and its opening is usually thought of as the beginning of modern psychology. Indeed, he is often regarded as the father of psychology. His assistant: Edward Titchener.
66
Opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. This was the first laboratory dedicated to psychology, and its opening is usually thought of as the beginning of modern psychology. Indeed, he is often regarded as the father of psychology. His assistant: Edward Titchener.
Wilhelm Wundt
67
A theory of consciousness developed by Wilhelm Wundt and his mentee Edward Bradford Titchener. The "What". Seeks to analyze the adult mind (the total sum of experience from birth to the present) in terms of the simplest definable components and then to find how these components fit together to form more complex experiences as well as how they correlated to physical events.
Structuralism
68
Structuralism
A theory of consciousness developed by Wilhelm Wundt and his mentee Edward Bradford Titchener. The "What". Seeks to analyze the adult mind (the total sum of experience from birth to the present) in terms of the simplest definable components and then to find how these components fit together to form more complex experiences as well as how they correlated to physical events.
69
Issues of Structuralism? (3)
a. reductionistic (it reduced all complex human experience to simple sensations);
b. elemental (it sought to combine parts, or elements, into a whole rather than study complex, or whole, behaviours directly); and
c. mentalistic (it studied only verbal reports of human conscious awareness, ignoring the study of individuals who could not describe their introspections, including animals, children and the mentally disturbed)
70
Gestalt psychology
________ psychology tries to understand the laws of our ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world. Founder: Max Wertheimer
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________ psychology tries to understand the laws of our ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world. Founder: Max Wertheimer
Gestalt psychology
72
Who founded Gestalt psychology?
Max Wetheimer
73
Max Wetheimer
Who founded Gestalt psychology?
74
Functionalism
Mental states (beliefs, desires, being in pain, etc.) are constituted solely by their functional role – that is, they have causal relations to other mental states, numerous sensory inputs, and behavioral outputs. Founder: William James.
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Mental states (beliefs, desires, being in pain, etc.) are constituted solely by their functional role – that is, they have causal relations to other mental states, numerous sensory inputs, and behavioral outputs. Founder: John Dewey
Functionalism
76
John Dewey
Who is the founder of Functionalism?
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Who is the founder of Functionalism?
John Dewey (focus on education)
78
William James
Founder of American Psychology
79
Founder of American Psychology
William James
80
It assumes that the behavior of a human or an animal is a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli. (focus primarily on environmental factors). Founder: John B. Watson
Behaviourism
81
Behaviourism
It assumes that the behavior of a human or an animal is a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli. (focus primarily on environmental factors). Founder: John B. Watson
82
"Little Albert" experiment
Conditioning babies with fear (Watson)
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Conditioning babies with fear (Watson)
"Little Albert" experiment
84
B.F. Skinner
Positive/Negative reinforcement & positive/negative punishment are theories on behaviour of this psychologist
85
Humanistic perspective
holistic psychological model that emphasizes an individual’s phenomenal world and inherent capacity for making rational choices and developing to his/her maximum potential
86
holistic psychological model that emphasizes an individual’s phenomenal world and inherent capacity for making rational choices and developing to his/her maximum potential
Humanistic perspective
87
Carl Rogers
Fully functioning person; unconditional positive regard; conditions of worth
88
Fully functioning person; unconditional positive regard; conditions of worth
Carl Rogers
89
Abraham Maslow
coined the term self-actualization (an individual’s drive toward the fullest development of his or her potential
90
coined the term self-actualization (an individual’s drive toward the fullest development of his or her potential
Abraham Maslow
91
Cognitive perspective
the perspective on psychology that stresses human thought and the processes of knowing, such as attending, thinking, remembering, expecting, solving problems, fantasizing, and consciousness
92
the perspective on psychology that stresses human thought and the processes of knowing, such as attending, thinking, remembering, expecting, solving problems, fantasizing, and consciousness
Cognitive perspective
93
Biological Perspective
strives to identify causes of behaviour by focusing on the functioning of genes, the brain, the nervous system, and the endocrine system
94
strives to identify causes of behaviour by focusing on the functioning of genes, the brain, the nervous system, and the endocrine system
Biological Perspective
95
Evolutionary Perspective
stresses the importance of behavioural and mental adaptiveness, based on the assumption that mental capabilities evolved over millions of years to serve particular adaptive purposes
96
stresses the importance of behavioural and mental adaptiveness, based on the assumption that mental capabilities evolved over millions of years to serve particular adaptive purposes
Evolutionary Perspective
97
Sociocultural Perspective
focuses on cross-cultural differences in the causes and consequences of behaviour
98
focuses on cross-cultural differences in the causes and consequences of behaviour
Sociocultural Perspective
99
Existential Psychology
concerned with the meaningless and alienation from modern life (leads to apathy, fear, and other psychological problems); Rollo May and “lost souls”
100
concerned with the meaningless and alienation from modern life (leads to apathy, fear, and other psychological problems); Rollo May and “lost souls”
Existential Psychology
101
Great debates in psychology
Nature VS Nurture; Free-will VS determinism
102
Determinism
the belief that all events (physical, mental, or behavioural) are determined by specific causal factors
103
the belief that all events (physical, mental, or behavioural) are determined by specific causal factors
Determinism
104
An error in data collection or data reporting that is due to the personal motives and expectations of the viewer
Observer Bias
105
Observer Bias
An error in data collection or data reporting that is due to the personal motives and expectations of the viewer
106
Standardization
Means using uniform procedures in all phases of the research process (i.e., all participants should experience the same procedure, and other researchers should be able to replicate the procedure exactly)
107
Means using uniform procedures in all phases of the research process (i.e., all participants should experience the same procedure, and other researchers should be able to replicate the procedure exactly)
Standardization
108
a variable of condition in terms of its measurement, operation, or procedure used to determine its existence in the research setting
Operational definition
109
Operational definition
a variable of condition in terms of its measurement, operation, or procedure used to determine its existence in the research setting
110
Expectancy effects
occur when a researcher subtly communicates to the participant the results that he or she expects
111
occur when a researcher subtly communicates to the participant the results that he or she expects
Expectancy effects
112
participants are randomly assigned to experimental group(s) or control group(s)
Between-subjects designs
113
Between-subjects designs
participants are randomly assigned to experimental group(s) or control group(s)
114
Within-subjects designs
each participant serves as his or her own control group (exposed to both control and experimental conditions)
115
each participant serves as his or her own control group (exposed to both control and experimental conditions)
Within-subjects designs
116
Correlation coefficient
represented by “r” (can vary between -1.0 and +1.0: 0 (zero) means no relationship exists)
117
Positive correlation
as one variable increases so does the other
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as one variable increases so does the other
Positive correlation
119
Negative correlation
as one variable decreases the other increases
120
as one variable decreases the other increases
Negative correlation
121
researcher sets up a lab situation that evokes the behaviour of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to display the response
Structured observation
122
Structured observation
researcher sets up a lab situation that evokes the behaviour of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to display the response
123
ethnography
a descriptive, qualitative technique directed toward understanding a culture or a distinct social group through participant observation [researcher spends time in the community participating in daily life]
124
Neuroscience
interdisciplinary field studying how biological processes relate to behavioural and mental processes
125
interdisciplinary field studying how biological processes relate to behavioural and mental processes
Neuroscience
126
Biopsychology or Biological Psychology
scientific study of the biology of behaviour and mental processes
127
Neuron
cell of the nervous system responsible for receiving and transmitting electrochemical information
128
Types of neurons
three types: sensory, motor and inter-neurons
129
neurons are held in place and supported by ___________ cells that surround neurons, perform cleanup tasks, insulate one neuron from another so that their neural messages are not scrambled (communication function)
Glial cells (“glue”) [glia/neuroglia]
130
Glial cells (“glue”) [glia/neuroglia]
neurons are held in place and supported by ___________ cells that surround neurons, perform cleanup tasks, insulate one neuron from another so that their neural messages are not scrambled (communication function)
131
Dendrites (“little tree”)
receive electrochemical information and transmit to cell body
132
receive electrochemical information and transmit to cell body
Dendrites (“little tree”)
133
Cell body (“soma”)
accepts incoming messages; if enough stimulation the soma will pass the message on to the axon
Contains nucleus where proteins are manufactured; damage to this part of the neuron is fatal
134
accepts incoming messages; if enough stimulation the soma will pass the message on to the axon
Contains nucleus where proteins are manufactured; damage to this part of the neuron is fatal
Cell body (“soma”)
135
Axon (“axle”)
similar to a miniature cable, it carries information away from the cell body
136
similar to a miniature cable, it carries information away from the cell body
Axon (“axle”)
137
Nodes of Ranvier
gaps (approximately 1 micrometer wide) formed between myelin sheath cells along the axons which helps the conduction of nerve impulses
Action potentials occur at these gaps in myelinated neurons
138
gaps (approximately 1 micrometer wide) formed between myelin sheath cells along the axons which helps the conduction of nerve impulses
Action potentials occur at these gaps in myelinated neurons
Nodes of Ranvier
139
Myelin sheath
white, fatty coating around the axons of some neurons
helps insulate and speed neural impulses
since fat serves as a good insulator, speeds the rate of transmission of an electrical impulse along the axon
140
white, fatty coating around the axons of some neurons
helps insulate and speed neural impulses
since fat serves as a good insulator, speeds the rate of transmission of an electrical impulse along the axon
Myelin sheath
141
How fast does a neural impulse travel?
more slowly than electricity through a wire (97% speed of light - 300 million metres per second)
10 metres per second (non-myelinated)
100 metres per second (myelinated) [This rapid rate of conduction is called saltatory conduction.]
Myelinated axons are rare in the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
142
saltatory conduction
100 metres per second
143
Action Potential
Electrical impulse that travels down the axon triggering the release of neurotransmitters.
When _______________ reaches the axon terminal, it stimulates the release of neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic gap
144
Refactory period
a period immediately following stimulation during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to further stimulation.
145
Resting potential
electrical change difference across the neuronal membrane when the neuron is not being stimulated or inhibited
146
electrical change difference across the neuronal membrane when the neuron is not being stimulated or inhibited
Resting potential
147
Threshold
membrane potential necessary to trigger an action potential
148
membrane potential necessary to trigger an action potential
Threshold
149
Absolute refractory period
time during which another action potential is impossible; limits maximal firing rate
150
Near the end of the axon, it branches out and at the tip of each branch are ____________
Terminal buttons
151
Neurotransmitters
chemicals released by neurons that affect other neurons; some excite and some inhibit
produced from materials in the blood (originally derived from foods)
some regulate actions of glands and muscles
some promote sleep or stimulate mental and physical alertness
some affect learning and memory
some affect motivation, emotions, and psychological disorders (e.g., schizophrenia and depression)
152
Glutamate
Excites; related to enhanced learning and memory; may contribute to schizophrenia and other mental disorders
153
GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)
Inhibits; inhibits so most anti-anxiety medications bind to _______ receptors; critical roles in learning, memory and sleep
154
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Roles in arousal, selective attention, REM sleep, memory, emotion, muscle action
Implicated in Alzheimer’s Disease (Aricept boosts levels of Acetylcholine)
Used in insecticides
155
Roles in arousal, selective attention, REM sleep, memory, emotion, muscle action
Implicated in Alzheimer’s Disease (Aricept boosts levels of Acetylcholine)
Used in insecticides
Acetylcholine (ACh)
156
Excites; related to enhanced learning and memory; may contribute to schizophrenia and other mental disorders
Glutamate
157
Inhibits; inhibits so most anti-anxiety medications bind to _______ receptors; critical roles in learning, memory and sleep
GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)
158
Norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin are _____________neurotransmitters
the monoamines (called “monoamines” because they contain only one amino acid, the building blocks of proteins)
159
Norephinephrine (NE) or Noradrenaline
learning, memory, dreaming, emotion, waking from sleep, eating, alertness, wakefulness, reactions to stress; low levels of ___________ associated with depression; high levels with agitated, manic states
160
Dopamine (DA)
movement, attention, memory, learning, emotion; excess ________ associated with Schizophrenia; too little ________ associated with Parkinson’s Disease; also plays a role in addiction and the reward system
161
Serotonin
mood, sleep, appetite, sensory perception, temperature regulation, pain suppression, and impulsivity; low levels associated with depression
162
discovered in early 70s (Pert and Snyder), it is a neuropeptide (short strings of amino acids in the nervous system)
produce effects similar to those of opiod-based drugs such as morphine (reduce pain and promote pleasure), codeine, and heroin
mood, pain reduction, memory, and learning
Endorphins (endogenous opioid peptides)
163
Endorphins (endogenous opioid peptides)
discovered in early 70s (Pert and Snyder), it is a neuropeptide (short strings of amino acids in the nervous system)
produce effects similar to those of opiod-based drugs such as morphine (reduce pain and promote pleasure), codeine, and heroin
mood, pain reduction, memory, and learning
164
Anandamide
Roles in eating, motivation, memory, and sleep
165
Antagonist
that decrease receptor site activity, such as medications for serotonin
166
that decrease receptor site activity, such as medications for serotonin
Antagonist
167
Agonists
they increase receptor site activity
168
During course of development, network of neurons change in four primary ways:
- Growth of dendrites and axons
- Synaptogenesis (formation of new synapses)
- Pruning (death of certain neurons and retraction of axons to remove connections that aren’t useful)
- Myelinization (insulation of axons with a myelin sheath)
169
Neuroplasticity
refers to the potential that the brain has to reorganize by creating new neural pathways to adapt, as it needs
170
refers to the potential that the brain has to reorganize by creating new neural pathways to adapt, as it needs
Neuroplasticity
171
Nervous system network
includes the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
172
includes the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Nervous system network
173
Central Nervous System
consists of the brain and the spinal cord; it directs mental and basic life processes
174
consists of the brain and the spinal cord; it directs mental and basic life processes
Central Nervous System
175
Peripheral Nervous System
consists of the many nerves that lie outside of your skull and spine and carries messages between the system and the ________ of the body
176
consists of the many nerves that lie outside of your skull and spine and carries messages between the system and the ________ of the body
Peripheral Nervous System
177
Brain organization
Each system involves several brain regions that carry out different types of information processing
There are identifiable pathways that project from one area to the next
Each part of the brain projects to the next in an orderly fashion, resulting in topographically organized regions that can be mapped spatially
the brain is hierarchically organized
the brain systems are organized so that one side of the brain controls the other side of the body
178
two large cerebral hemispheres (right and left), joined by _________ (joins the two halfs and permits for transfer of information between the two halfs)
corpus callosum
179
Forebrain
the anterior part of the brain, including the cerebral hemispheres, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus.
the most advanced brain structure (organizationally and structurally)
largest and most complicated because of many interrelated parts
180
the anterior part of the brain, including the cerebral hemispheres, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus.
the most advanced brain structure (organizationally and structurally)
largest and most complicated because of many interrelated parts
Forebrain
181
Midbrain
a small central part of the brainstem, developing from the middle of the primitive or embryonic brain.
least understood area of the brain
very small structure that consists of nuclei (collections of cell bodies) that receive afferent signals from other parts of the brain and from the spinal cord, interprets the signals, and either relay the information to a more complex part of the brain or cause the body to act at once
two divisions
inferior colliculus (auditory) and superior colliculus (visual)
reticular formation and areas important for sensorimotor function and pain mediation
- also governs smoothness of movement, temperature regulation, and other reflexive movements (e.g., movement of eyeball in the socket is the superior colliculus)
substantia nigra: smoothness of swinging a bat or getting out of a chair
182
a small central part of the brainstem, developing from the middle of the primitive or embryonic brain.
least understood area of the brain
very small structure that consists of nuclei (collections of cell bodies) that receive afferent signals from other parts of the brain and from the spinal cord, interprets the signals, and either relay the information to a more complex part of the brain or cause the body to act at once
two divisions
inferior colliculus (auditory) and superior colliculus (visual)
reticular formation and areas important for sensorimotor function and pain mediation
- also governs smoothness of movement, temperature regulation, and other reflexive movements (e.g., movement of eyeball in the socket is the superior colliculus)
substantia nigra: smoothness of swinging a bat or getting out of a chair
Midbrain
183
Hindbrain
the lower part of the brainstem, comprising the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata.
184
the lower part of the brainstem, comprising the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata.
Hindbrain
185
Medulla
controls heartbeat and breathing and through which many afferent and efferent signals pass
186
controls heartbeat and breathing and through which many afferent and efferent signals pass
Medulla
187
controls a person’s state of arousal; normal function controls waking and sleeping but damage can result in coma and death. extends into and through the pons and the midbrain, with projections toward the cortex
Reticular Formation
188
Reticular Formation
controls a person’s state of arousal; normal function controls waking and sleeping but damage can result in coma and death. extends into and through the pons and the midbrain, with projections toward the cortex
189
Pons
provides link; affects sleep and dreaming
190
provides link; affects sleep and dreaming
Pons
191
Cerebellum (“little brain”)
influences balance, coordination, and movement, including single joint actions (flexing of elbow or knee). 10% of total volume of brain but more than ½ of the total neurons, allows you to walk a straight line, type accurately, coordinate dancing movements, hit a golf ball
192
influences balance, coordination, and movement, including single joint actions (flexing of elbow or knee). 10% of total volume of brain but more than ½ of the total neurons, allows you to walk a straight line, type accurately, coordinate dancing movements, hit a golf ball
Cerebellum (“little brain”)
193
Thalamus
acts primarily as a relay station for sensory information
integrates and analyzes this input and sends information on to the primary sensory cortex
all sensory information (except olfaction)
194
acts primarily as a relay station for sensory information
integrates and analyzes this input and sends information on to the primary sensory cortex
all sensory information (except olfaction)
Thalamus
195
Hypothalamus
numerous connections with rest of forebrain, midbrain
influences “species-specific” functions such as eating, drinking and sexual arousal
plays huge role in maintaining body’s internal environment (homeostasis or balance in blood sugar levels, body temperature)
involved in regulation of endocrine system
196
numerous connections with rest of forebrain, midbrain
influences “species-specific” functions such as eating, drinking and sexual arousal
plays huge role in maintaining body’s internal environment (homeostasis or balance in blood sugar levels, body temperature)
involved in regulation of endocrine system
Hypothalamus
197
Limbic System
an interconnected group of structures involved in emotions, memory, motivation, and brain disorders (e.g., epilepsy)
hippocampus and amygdala (a set of nuclei connected to the hippocampus)
-involved in emotional control and in the formation of emotional memories
- stimulation of the amygdala in animals produces attack responses (i.e., rabies leads to the destruction of the amygdala)
- learning of fear and other emotional responses
- possible “pleasure centres” in animals
198
an interconnected group of structures involved in emotions, memory, motivation, and brain disorders (e.g., epilepsy)
hippocampus and amygdala (a set of nuclei connected to the hippocampus)
-involved in emotional control and in the formation of emotional memories
- stimulation of the amygdala in animals produces attack responses (i.e., rabies leads to the destruction of the amygdala)
- learning of fear and other emotional responses
- possible “pleasure centres” in animals
Limbic System
199
Basal Ganglia
series of nuclei that control movements and posture (associated with Parkinson’s Disease)
parts influence muscle tone and initiate commands to the cerebellum and to higher brain centres
damage can cause severe behavioural consequences
200
series of nuclei that control movements and posture (associated with Parkinson’s Disease)
parts influence muscle tone and initiate commands to the cerebellum and to higher brain centres
damage can cause severe behavioural consequences
Basal Ganglia
201
Corpus Callosum
thick band of 200 million or so nerve fibres
| damage can result in two separate brains
202
thick band of 200 million or so nerve fibres
| damage can result in two separate brains
Corpus Callosum
203
Cortex
exterior covering, two millimeters thick and consists of six thin layers of nerve cells
convoluted or furrowed (gyri and fissures) to create more surface area in a small space
intimately involved in thought and reasoning
204
exterior covering, two millimeters thick and consists of six thin layers of nerve cells
convoluted or furrowed (gyri and fissures) to create more surface area in a small space
intimately involved in thought and reasoning
Cortex
205
Frontal Lobe
concerned with higher order functions such as memory; monitoring, organizing, and directing thought processes; planning and paying attention
specialized speech and language production area (Broca’s area)
primary motor cortex (Walter Penfield, 1958)
right ___________’s role in appreciating humour (Shammi and Stuss, 1999) and self-awareness (Stuss, 1991)
damage: personality, impulsivity, planning, initiating
206
concerned with higher order functions such as memory; monitoring, organizing, and directing thought processes; planning and paying attention
specialized speech and language production area (Broca’s area)
primary motor cortex (Walter Penfield, 1958)
right ___________’s role in appreciating humour (Shammi and Stuss, 1999) and self-awareness (Stuss, 1991)
damage: personality, impulsivity, planning, initiating
Frontal Lobe
207
Temporal Lobe
left contains a language comprehension centre (Wernicke’s area) and is connected to Broca’s area
memory function and social understanding
contains auditory cortex
damage: memory loss, altered emotional responding, language difficulties
208
left contains a language comprehension centre (Wernicke’s area) and is connected to Broca’s area
memory function and social understanding
contains auditory cortex
damage: memory loss, altered emotional responding, language difficulties
Temporal Lobe
209
integrating visual input and monitoring the body’s position in space
somatosensory cortex registers information from the skin senses (touch, temperature, pain) (figure 3.11, page 102 of textbook)
Melzack (McGill U) “phantom limb”
damage differs depending on whether damage is left or right hemisphere
damage to left tends to produce aphasias: (language disorders) or agnosias: (inability to perceive objects)
damage to right lobe causes individual to neglect the left side of his body (e.g., failure to dress that side)
Parietal Lobe
210
Parietal Lobe
integrating visual input and monitoring the body’s position in space
somatosensory cortex registers information from the skin senses (touch, temperature, pain) (figure 3.11, page 102 of textbook)
Melzack (McGill U) “phantom limb”
damage differs depending on whether damage is left or right hemisphere
damage to left tends to produce aphasias: (language disorders) or agnosias: (inability to perceive objects)
damage to right lobe causes individual to neglect the left side of his body (e.g., failure to dress that side)
211
aphasias
language disorders
212
language disorders
aphasias
213
agnosias
inability to perceive objects
214
inability to perceive objects
agnosias
215
Occipital Lobe
processes visual input
primary visual cortex receives sensory input directly from the eyes
parietal and __________ in concert for hand-eye coordination
216
processes visual input
primary visual cortex receives sensory input directly from the eyes
parietal and __________ in concert for hand-eye coordination
Occipital Lobe
217
Autonomic Nervous System
Controls involuntary basic life functions, such as heartbeat, digestion, pupil dilation, breathing; it consists of
218
Controls involuntary basic life functions, such as heartbeat, digestion, pupil dilation, breathing; it consists of
Autonomic Nervous System
219
Sympathetic Nervous System
Arouses body to expend energy and respond to threat
| part of Autonomic Nervous System
220
Arouses body to expend energy and respond to threat
| part of Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous System
221
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Calms the body to conserve energy and restore the status quo (part of Autonomic Nervous System)
222
Calms the body to conserve energy and restore the status quo (part of Autonomic Nervous System)
Parasympathetic Nervous System
223
Somatic Nervous System
Controls voluntary muscles and conveys sensory information to the CNS and sends motor messages to muscles
224
Controls voluntary muscles and conveys sensory information to the CNS and sends motor messages to muscles
Somatic Nervous System
225
Sensory neurons
transmit messages from sense organs to the CNS (brain and spinal cord), also known as afferent neurons
226
transmit messages from sense organs to the CNS (brain and spinal cord), also known as afferent neurons
Sensory neurons
227
Motor neurons
transmit messages from the CNS to organs, muscles, and glands; also known as efferent neurons
228
transmit messages from the CNS to organs, muscles, and glands; also known as efferent neurons
Motor neurons
229
Inter-neurons
neurons within the CNS that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory and motor neurons
230
neurons within the CNS that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory and motor neurons
Inter-neurons
231
Endocrine System
collection of glands located throughout the body that manufacture and secrete hormones into the bloodstream
instead of neurotransmitters, it uses hormones released directly into the bloodstream
232
collection of glands located throughout the body that manufacture and secrete hormones into the bloodstream
instead of neurotransmitters, it uses hormones released directly into the bloodstream
Endocrine System
233
Single-unit recording
insert a thin wire, needle, or glass tube containing an electrolyte solution into or next to a single neuron to measure its electrical activity (usually animals)
234
record of electrical brain wave patterns obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp
Electoencephalogram (EEG)
235
Electoencephalogram (EEG)
record of electrical brain wave patterns obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp
236
CT (computerized tomography) Scan
computer-assisted x-ray images in three dimensions (photographic slices)
tumours or regions destroyed by strokes, accidents, or other brain abnormalities
237
computer-assisted x-ray images in three dimensions (photographic slices)
tumours or regions destroyed by strokes, accidents, or other brain abnormalities
CT (computerized tomography) Scan
238
PET (positron emission tomography) Scan
tracks radioactive markers injected into bloodstream to enable researchers to observe metabolic activity by recording glucose use taking place in the brain (cerebral blood flow)
problem: although they efficiently display cortical function, they lack spatial resolution and precise anatomical localization of the activated region
239
tracks radioactive markers injected into bloodstream to enable researchers to observe metabolic activity by recording glucose use taking place in the brain (cerebral blood flow)
problem: although they efficiently display cortical function, they lack spatial resolution and precise anatomical localization of the activated region
PET (positron emission tomography) Scan
240
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
uses magnetic fields instead of x-rays (greater clarity and resolution)
can distinguish brain parts as small as one or two millimeters
f_______(functional ______) registers changes in metabolism; activity as it happens
241
uses magnetic fields instead of x-rays (greater clarity and resolution)
can distinguish brain parts as small as one or two millimeters
f_______(functional ______) registers changes in metabolism; activity as it happens
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
242
the process in which the sense organ receptor cells are stimulated and relay their initital information to higher brain centres for further processing
Sensation
243
Sensation
the process in which the sense organ receptor cells are stimulated and relay their initital information to higher brain centres for further processing
244
Perception
The processes used to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of sensations; through perception, the simple component sensations are organized and interpreted into meaningful, recognizable forms
245
The processes used to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of sensations; through perception, the simple component sensations are organized and interpreted into meaningful, recognizable forms
Perception
246
Bottom-up processing
Sensing of individual stimulus elements
Breakdown analysis of stimuli (including feature detection)
Combination and interpretation of whole
247
Sensing of individual stimulus elements
Breakdown analysis of stimuli (including feature detection)
Combination and interpretation of whole
Bottom-up processing
248
Top-down processing
examines complex perceptual phenomena from more complex interpretations or memories
focuses on aspects of the perceptual process such as selective attention and active decision-making.
also known as conceptually driven or hypothesis driven processing because the concepts you have stored in memory affect interpretation of the sensory data.
249
examines complex perceptual phenomena from more complex interpretations or memories
focuses on aspects of the perceptual process such as selective attention and active decision-making.
also known as conceptually driven or hypothesis driven processing because the concepts you have stored in memory affect interpretation of the sensory data.
Top-down processing
250
Transduction
Is the process by which the nervous system converts an external stimulus, like light or sound, into electrical signals within neurons
251
Is the process by which the nervous system converts an external stimulus, like light or sound, into electrical signals within neurons
Transduction
252
specialized cell responsible for converting external stimuli into neural activity for a specific sensory system
Sense receptor
253
Sense receptor
specialized cell responsible for converting external stimuli into neural activity for a specific sensory system
254
Sensory adaptation
activation is greatest when a stimulus is first detected
255
activation is greatest when a stimulus is first detected
Sensory adaptation
256
Threshold (psychophysics)
a dividing line, a point at which things become different
257
a dividing line, a point at which things become different
Threshold (psychophysics)
258
Absolute Threshold
The minimum level of stimulation necessary to define the transition from what is undetectable to that which is detectable 50% of the time
259
The minimum level of stimulation necessary to define the transition from what is undetectable to that which is detectable 50% of the time
Absolute Threshold
260
the amount of change necessary for an observer to report 50% of the time that a level of stimulation (say mass) has changed or is different from another value (has gotten heavier or lighter)
Difference threshold
261
Difference threshold
the amount of change necessary for an observer to report 50% of the time that a level of stimulation (say mass) has changed or is different from another value (has gotten heavier or lighter)
262
Weber’s Law
there is a constant proporational relationship between the JND and ongoing stimulus intensity
263
there is a constant proporational relationship between the JND and ongoing stimulus intensity
Weber’s Law
264
Method of limits
various values of a stimulus are presented in ascending or descending order
265
various values of a stimulus are presented in ascending or descending order
Method of limits
266
Method of constant stimuli
values of a signal are presented in random order; respond yes or no, indicating that s/he has either detected a stimulus or not
267
values of a signal are presented in random order; respond yes or no, indicating that s/he has either detected a stimulus or not
Method of constant stimuli
268
holds that an observer’s perception is dependent not only on the intensity of the stimulus but on the observer’s motivation
Signal Detection Theory
269
Signal Detection Theory
holds that an observer’s perception is dependent not only on the intensity of the stimulus but on the observer’s motivation
270
Synesthesia
A condition in which people experience cross-modal sensations
271
A condition in which people experience cross-modal sensations
Synesthesia
272
Filter Theory
states that human beings possess a limited capacity to process information and that perceptual “filters” screen out extraneous information
273
Attenuation Theory
states that all information is analyzed but that intervening factors inhibit (attenuate) attention so that only selected information reaches the highest centres of processing
274
Subliminal Perception
subliminal stimuli can influence perception, attitudes, and behaviour. Perception below the threshold of awareness
275
Inattentional Blindness
Inability to detect unexpected objects
276
Inability to detect unexpected objects
Inattentional Blindness
277
Sensory Deprivation
the deliberate reduction or removal of stimuli from one or more of the senses.
278
Electromagnetic spectrum
Includes gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared rays, radar, broadcast bands, and AC currents
Visible light is a very small portion of that spectrum
279
Visual Transduction
a process by which light is converted into electrical signals in the rod cells, cone cells and photosensitive ganglion cells of the retina of the eye.
280
a process by which light is converted into electrical signals in the rod cells, cone cells and photosensitive ganglion cells of the retina of the eye.
Visual Transduction
281
Wavelength
(ranging from about 400 to 700 nanometres “nm”); changes experienced as changes in hue
282
(ranging from about 400 to 700 nanometres “nm”); changes experienced as changes in hue
Wavelength
283
1st step in transduction process
Bring the incoming light energy to the light-sensitive receptor cells at the back of each eye
284
Bring the incoming light energy to the light-sensitive receptor cells at the back of each eye
1st step in transduction process
285
Eye
Light passes through the cornea (sm. Transparent bulge) covering the pupil (dark opening in the centre of the eye) and the pigmented (coloured) iris
286
Iris
Coloured part of eye which regulates the amount of light entering the eye (constriction and dilation)
287
Cornea
the transparent layer forming the front of the eye.
288
the transparent layer forming the front of the eye.
Cornea
289
The hole or opening that is located in the center of the iris of the eye. The ______ controls the amount of light that enters the eye. _____size is controlled by the dilator and sphincter muscles of the iris
Pupil
290
Pupil
The hole or opening that is located in the center of the iris of the eye. The ______ controls the amount of light that enters the eye. _____size is controlled by the dilator and sphincter muscles of the iris
291
Behind the pupil is the ______; both the cornea and ______ contribute to image formation
Lens
292
Myopia
Nearsighted
293
Nearsighted
Myopia
294
Hyperopia
Farsighted
295
Farsighted
Hyperopia
296
Retina
layer of neurons that lines the back of the eye, capture images and sends them to the brain for processing, thus producing conscious visual experience
297
layer of neurons that lines the back of the eye, capture images and sends them to the brain for processing, thus producing conscious visual experience
Retina
298
the central part of the retina and is responsible for acuity or sharpness of vision
fovea
299
fovea
the central part of the retina and is responsible for acuity or sharpness of vision
300
photoreceptor
light sensitive cells
301
light sensitive cells
photoreceptor
302
______ cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that can function in less intense light than the other type of visual photoreceptor. They are concentrated at the outer edges of the retina and are used in peripheral vision.
Rod
303
Rod
______ cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that can function in less intense light than the other type of visual photoreceptor. They are concentrated at the outer edges of the retina and are used in peripheral vision.
304
A type of specialized light-sensitive cell (photoreceptor) in the retina of the eye that provides color vision and sharp central vision.
Cone
305
Cone
A type of specialized light-sensitive cell (photoreceptor) in the retina of the eye that provides color vision and sharp central vision.
306
Duplexity Theory
Assets there are two separate receptor systems in the retina (rods and cones)
307
Assets there are two separate receptor systems in the retina (rods and cones)
Duplexity Theory
308
an increase in sensitivity to light that occurs when the illumination level changes from high to low
Dark adaptation
309
Dark adaptation
an increase in sensitivity to light that occurs when the illumination level changes from high to low
310
A______ cell is a type of neuron which has two extensions. Bipolar cells are specialized sensory neurons for the transmission of special senses.
bipolar cell
311
bipolar cell
A______ cell is a type of neuron which has two extensions. Bipolar cells are specialized sensory neurons for the transmission of special senses.
312
It receives visual information from photoreceptors via two intermediate neuron types: bipolar cells and retina amacrine cells.
Ganglion cell
313
Ganglion cell
It receives visual information from photoreceptors via two intermediate neuron types: bipolar cells and retina amacrine cells.
314
The axons of the ganglion cells make up the _______________(carries messages to the brain)
Optic Nerve
315
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
One of the major visual projection areas of the visual system
316
One of the major visual projection areas of the visual system
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
317
Simple cells
respond to the shape and size of lights
318
respond to the shape and size of lights
Simple cells
319
Complex cells
respond most vigorously to the movement of light in one direction
320
respond most vigorously to the movement of light in one direction
Complex cells
321
Hypercomplex cells
respond only to a line of the correct length and orientation that moves in the proper direction
322
respond only to a line of the correct length and orientation that moves in the proper direction
Hypercomplex cells
323
Field detector cell
cell that detects lines and edges
324
cell that detects lines and edges
Field detector cell
325
Agnosia
an inability to recognize a sensory stimuli that should be recognizable (because all normal perception processes are intact and there is no verbal, memory, or intellectual impairment)
326
an inability to recognize a sensory stimuli that should be recognizable (because all normal perception processes are intact and there is no verbal, memory, or intellectual impairment)
Agnosia
327
Prosopagnosia
inability to recognize faces
328
inability to recognize faces
Prosopagnosia
329
Saccades
rapid, voluntary movements of the eyes
330
rapid, voluntary movements of the eyes
Saccades
331
size of the region a person sees when fixating visually
Perceptual scan
332
Perceptual scan
size of the region a person sees when fixating visually
333
______________depends on the wavelengths of the visible light that stimulates the photo receptors
Colour
334
when some colours look more vibrant when placed next to other colours
Colour contrast
335
Colour contrast
when some colours look more vibrant when placed next to other colours
336
inability to perceive different hues
Colour blindness
337
Colour blindness
inability to perceive different hues
338
Dichromats
can distinguish only two of the three colours; difficulty with red/green (2% of men) or blue/yellow
339
can distinguish only two of the three colours; difficulty with red/green (2% of men) or blue/yellow
Dichromats
340
ability of the perceptual system to recognize that an object remains constant in size regardless of its distance from the observer or the size of its image on the retina
Size Constancy
341
Ability to recognize a shape despite changes in the angle or position from which it is viewed
Shape Constancy
342
Shape Constancy
Ability to recognize a shape despite changes in the angle or position from which it is viewed
343
Size Constancy
ability of the perceptual system to recognize that an object remains constant in size regardless of its distance from the observer or the size of its image on the retina
344
motion parallax (monocular depth cue)
when a moving observer stares at a fixed point, the objects behind the point appear to move in the same direction and objects in front of the point appear to move in the opposite direction
345
when a moving observer stares at a fixed point, the objects behind the point appear to move in the same direction and objects in front of the point appear to move in the opposite direction
motion parallax (monocular depth cue)
346
objects that look flat when they are stationary appear three-dimensional when set in motion (e.g., a paper clip)
kinetic depth effect (monocular depth cue)
347
kinetic depth effect (monocular depth cue)
objects that look flat when they are stationary appear three-dimensional when set in motion (e.g., a paper clip)
348
linear perspective (monocular depth cue)
based on the principle that distant objects appear to be closer together than nearer objects
349
based on the principle that distant objects appear to be closer together than nearer objects
linear perspective (monocular depth cue)
350
when one object blocks part of another, the first appears to be closer
interposition (monocular depth cue)
351
interposition (monocular depth cue)
when one object blocks part of another, the first appears to be closer
352
Atmospheric perspective (monocular depth cue)
e.g. distant mountains often look blue (wavelengths)
353
e.g. distant mountains often look blue (wavelengths)
Atmospheric perspective (monocular depth cue)
354
Retinal Disparity
slight difference between the visual images projected on the two retinas
355
slight difference between the visual images projected on the two retinas
Retinal Disparity
356
the movement of the eyes toward the nose and each other in order to keep visual inputs at corresponding points on the retinas as an object moves closer to the observer
the movement of the eyes toward the nose and each other in order to keep visual inputs at corresponding points on the retinas as an object moves closer to the observer
Convergence
357
Convergence
the movement of the eyes toward the nose and each other in order to keep visual inputs at corresponding points on the retinas as an object moves closer to the observer
358
Illusion
A perception of a physical stimulus that differs from measurable reality and the normal expectations about its appearance (misperception of stimulation)
359
A perception of a physical stimulus that differs from measurable reality and the normal expectations about its appearance (misperception of stimulation)
Illusion
360
Empiricism
the theory that the origin of all knowledge is sense experience. It emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, and argues that the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori (i.e. based on experience).
361
the theory that the origin of all knowledge is sense experience. It emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, and argues that the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori (i.e. based on experience).
Empiricism
362
the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.
Phrenology
363
Phrenology
the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities. Founder: Joseph Gall.
364
either of two masses of gray matter lying between the cerebral hemispheres on either side of the third ventricle, relaying sensory information and acting as a center for pain perception.
thalamus
365
thalamus
either of two masses of gray matter lying between the cerebral hemispheres on either side of the third ventricle, relaying sensory information and acting as a center for pain perception.
366
a region of the forebrain below the thalamus that coordinates both the autonomic nervous system and the activity of the pituitary, controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity.
hypothalamus
367
hypothalamus
a region of the forebrain below the thalamus that coordinates both the autonomic nervous system and the activity of the pituitary, controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity.
368
An area in the posterior temporal lobe of the left hemisphere of the brain involved in the recognition of spoken word
Wernicke's area
369
Wernicke's area
An area in the posterior temporal lobe of the left hemisphere of the brain involved in the recognition of spoken word
370
a region of the brain concerned with the production of speech, located in the cortex of the dominant frontal lobe. Damage in this area causes Broca's aphasia, characterized by hesitant and fragmented speech with little grammatical structure.
Broca’s Area
371
Broca’s Area
a region of the brain concerned with the production of speech, located in the cortex of the dominant frontal lobe. Damage in this area causes Broca's aphasia, characterized by hesitant and fragmented speech with little grammatical structure.
372
The six monocular depth cues
1. motion parallax
2. kinetic depth effect
3. linear perspective
4. interposition
5. texture
6. Atmospheric perspective
373
Three physical dimensions of colour
Hue, brightness and saturation
374
trichromatic theory
there are three receptors in the retina that are responsible for the perception of color. One receptor is sensitive to the color green, another to the color blue and a third to the color red
375
there are three receptors in the retina that are responsible for the perception of color. One receptor is sensitive to the color green, another to the color blue and a third to the color red
trichromatic theory
376
Hippocampus
the elongated ridges on the floor of each lateral ventricle of the brain, thought to be the center of emotion, memory, and the autonomic nervous system.
377
the elongated ridges on the floor of each lateral ventricle of the brain, thought to be the center of emotion, memory, and the autonomic nervous system.
Hippocampus
378
Amygdala
a roughly almond-shaped mass of gray matter inside each cerebral hemisphere, involved with the experiencing of emotions.
379
a roughly almond-shaped mass of gray matter inside each cerebral hemisphere, involved with the experiencing of emotions.
Amygdala
380
the major endocrine gland. A pea-sized body attached to the base of the brain, is important in controlling growth and development and the functioning of the other endocrine glands.
pituitary gland
381
pituitary gland
the major endocrine gland. A pea-sized body attached to the base of the brain, is important in controlling growth and development and the functioning of the other endocrine glands.
382
Frontal lobes
Speaking, planning, judging, abstract thinking and personality aspects
383
Parietal lobe
Sense of touch and body position
384
Temporal lobe
Comprehension, sound and speech
385
Motor cortex
At rear of frontal lobe, controls voluntary movements
386
Tri-chromatic Theory
Young-Helmholtz's Theory: the human retina contains three different receptors for color (meaning each one is most sensitive to one color): one is most sensitive to red, one is most sensitive to green, and one is most sensitive to blue. These color receptors combine the colors to produce the perception of virtually any color.
387
Young-Helmholtz's Theory: the human retina contains three different receptors for color (meaning each one is most sensitive to one color): one is most sensitive to red, one is most sensitive to green, and one is most sensitive to blue. These color receptors combine the colors to produce the perception of virtually any color.
Tri-chromatic Theory
388
Opponent-Process Theory
Hering's Theory: At level of retinal ganglion cell, sensory input from three cone types is translated into an opponent colour system with red opposing green, blue opposing yellow, white opposing black
389
Hering's Theory: At level of retinal ganglion cell, sensory input from three cone types is translated into an opponent colour system with red opposing green, blue opposing yellow, white opposing black
Opponent-Process Theory
390
Synapse
A "joint" between two nerve cells, with a TINY gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter.
391
A "joint" between two nerve cells, with a TINY gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter.
Synapse
