Final 102 Flashcards
Activation-synthesis theory
theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain, then attempts to weave into a story
theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain, then attempts to weave into a story
Activation-synthesis theory
neurocognitive theory
theory that dreams are a meaningful product of our cognitive capacities, which shape what we dream about
theory that dreams are a meaningful product of our cognitive capacities, which shape what we dream about
neurocognitive theory
Past life regression theory (hypnosis)
therapeutic approach that hypnotizes and supposedly age-regresses patients to a previous life to identify the source of a present-day problem
therapeutic approach that hypnotizes and supposedly age-regresses patients to a previous life to identify the source of a present-day problem
Past life regression theory
sociocognitive theory (hypnosis)
approach to explaining hypnosis based on people’s attitudes, beliefs, and expectations
approach to explaining hypnosis based on people’s attitudes, beliefs, and expectations
sociocognitive theory
dissociation theory (hypnosis)
approach to explaining hypnosis based on a separation between personality functions that are normally well integrated
approach to explaining hypnosis based on a separation between personality functions that are normally well integrated
dissociation theory
Visual Neglect
a complex attention disorder characterized by a tendency to ignore things that appear on one side of the body, usually the left side
a complex attention disorder characterized by a tendency to ignore things that appear on one side of the body, usually the left side
Visual Neglect
circadian rhythms
biological activities that rise and fall in a 24-hour cycle
biological activities that rise and fall in a 24-hour cycle
circadian rhythms
biological clock
brain structures that schedule rhythmic variations in bodily functions by triggering them at the appropriate times
brain structures that schedule rhythmic variations in bodily functions by triggering them at the appropriate times
biological clock
memory consolidation
REM plays a role in strengthening or consolidating new memories
REM plays a role in strengthening or consolidating new memories
memory consolidation
Manifest content
things seen and otherwise experienced by dreamer
things seen and otherwise experienced by dreamer
Manifest content
Latent content
hidden desires that are too disturbing to be confronted directly
hidden desires that are too disturbing to be confronted directly
Latent content
Threat simulation
dreaming evolved to help us practice the skills needed to avoid threats
dreaming evolved to help us practice the skills needed to avoid threats
Threat simulation
Dyssomnia
problems associated with the amount, timing, and quality of sleep
problems associated with the amount, timing, and quality of sleep
Dyssomnia
hypersomnia
too much sleep
too much sleep
hypersomnia
somnambulism
mainly childhood; non-REM sleep; sleep-walking
mainly childhood; non-REM sleep; sleep-walking
somnambulism
Noctural enuresis
bedwetting
bedwetting
Noctural enuresis
Myths hypnosis
- Hypnosis produces a trance state in which “amazing” things happen
- Hypnotic phenomena are unique
- Hypnosis is a sleeplike state
- Hypnotized people are unaware of their surroundings
- Hypnotized people forget what happened during hypnosis
- Hypnosis enhances memory
hypnotically induced behaviour characterized by an ability to hold one or more limbs in a rigid position for long periods of time without tiring; motivated nonhypnotized subjects can enact catalepsy as well as hypnotized subjects
Catalepsy
Catalepsy
hypnotically induced behaviour characterized by an ability to hold one or more limbs in a rigid position for long periods of time without tiring; motivated nonhypnotized subjects can enact catalepsy as well as hypnotized subjects
people have an idea about what hypnosis is about and act accordingly
Social Role-Playing
Social Role-Playing
people have an idea about what hypnosis is about and act accordingly
Hypnotic Dissociation
a hypothesized, hypnotically induced splitting of consciousness during which two streams of awareness are said to coexist; one that is fully under the sway of the hypnotist’s suggestions and one that remains more aloof and objective
a hypothesized, hypnotically induced splitting of consciousness during which two streams of awareness are said to coexist; one that is fully under the sway of the hypnotist’s suggestions and one that remains more aloof and objective
Hypnotic Dissociation
Meditation
manipulation of awareness, often used for relaxation and self-reflection
“altered state of mind”, relaxation, and involves an induction ceremony
breathing, mantra, passive state of mind
manipulation of awareness, often used for relaxation and self-reflection
“altered state of mind”, relaxation, and involves an induction ceremony
breathing, mantra, passive state of mind
Meditation
Biofeedback
a technique by which individuals can monitor and learn to control the involuntary activity of some of the body’s organs and functions
a technique by which individuals can monitor and learn to control the involuntary activity of some of the body’s organs and functions
Biofeedback
Orienting response
an inborn tendency to shift one’s focus of attention toward a novel or surprising event – automatic
an inborn tendency to shift one’s focus of attention toward a novel or surprising event – automatic
Orienting response
Habituation
the decline in the tendency to respond to an event that has become familiar through repeated exposure
the decline in the tendency to respond to an event that has become familiar through repeated exposure
Habituation
Sensitization
an increase in the tendency to respond to an event that has been repeated; sensitization is more likely when a repeated stimulus is intense
an increase in the tendency to respond to an event that has been repeated; sensitization is more likely when a repeated stimulus is intense
Sensitization
Learning (4 concepts)
Is inferred from a change in behaviour or performance
Results in an inferred change in memory
Is the result of experience
Is relatively permanent
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
elicits an automatic response without proper conditioning
elicits an automatic response without proper conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus
automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response (UCR)
response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus as a result of conditioning
Conditioned response (CR):
Conditioned response (CR):
response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus as a result of conditioning
Conditional stimulus (CS):
initially neutral stimulus which, after conditioning, elicits a condition response (CR)
initially neutral stimulus which, after conditioning, elicits a condition response (CR)
Conditional stimulus (CS):
Acquisition:
learning phase during which a conditioned response is established
learning phase during which a conditioned response is established
Acquisition:
Extinction
gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the CR after the CS is presented repeatedly without the US
gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the CR after the CS is presented repeatedly without the US
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
sudden reemergence of an extinct CR after a delay following an extinction procedure
sudden reemergence of an extinct CR after a delay following an extinction procedure
Spontaneous recovery
Renewal effects
sudden reemergence of a CR following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment in which the CR was acquired
sudden reemergence of a CR following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment in which the CR was acquired
Renewal effects
Stimulus generalization
process by which CS similar but not identical to the original CS elicit a CR
process by which CS similar but not identical to the original CS elicit a CR
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
process by which organisms display a less pronounced CR to CS that differ from the original CS
process by which organisms display a less pronounced CR to CS that differ from the original CS
Stimulus discrimination
Higher-order conditioning
developing a CR to a CS by virtue of its association with another CS
developing a CR to a CS by virtue of its association with another CS
Higher-order conditioning
Radical Behaviourism
a perspective on the analysis of human and animal behaviour that emphasizes explaining behaviour in terms of environmental events and that minimizes the use of internal explanations like thoughts, beliefs, and intentions
a perspective on the analysis of human and animal behaviour that emphasizes explaining behaviour in terms of environmental events and that minimizes the use of internal explanations like thoughts, beliefs, and intentions
Radical Behaviourism
Who founded Radical Behaviourism?
B.F. Skinner
B.F. Skinner
Who founded Radical Behaviourism?
Continuous reinforcement schedule
one in which a reward is delivered each and every time the target behaviour is performed
one in which a reward is delivered each and every time the target behaviour is performed
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Partial reinforcement schedule
can be fixed or variable, and ratio or interval
can be fixed or variable, and ratio or interval
Partial reinforcement schedule
fixed-ratio
number of responses required for reinforcement is fixed and does not change from trial to trial
number of responses required for reinforcement is fixed and does not change from trial to trial
fixed-ratio
variable-ratio
a certain number of responses is required for reinforcement, but the # of required responses typically changes from trial to trial
a certain number of responses is required for reinforcement, but the # of required responses typically changes from trial to trial
variable-ratio
fixed-interval
the reinforcement is delivered for the first response that occurs following a fixed interval of time
the reinforcement is delivered for the first response that occurs following a fixed interval of time
fixed-interval
variable-interval
the allotted time before a response will yield reinforcement changes from trial to trial
the allotted time before a response will yield reinforcement changes from trial to trial
variable-interval
Triskaidekaphobia
extreme superstition regarding the number thirteen.
extreme superstition regarding the number thirteen.
Triskaidekaphobia
Latent learning
learning that’s not directly observable
learning that’s not directly observable
Latent learning
Cognitive map
mental representation of how a physical space is organized
mental representation of how a physical space is organized
Cognitive map
latent inhibition
difficulty establishing classical conditioning to an already familiar stimulus
difficulty establishing classical conditioning to an already familiar stimulus
latent inhibition
conditioned compensatory response
a CR that is the opposite of the UCR and serves to compensate for the UCR
a CR that is the opposite of the UCR and serves to compensate for the UCR
conditioned compensatory response
Fetishism
sexual attraction to nonliving things
sexual attraction to nonliving things
Fetishism
operant conditioning
learning controlled by the consequences of the organism’s behaviour
learning controlled by the consequences of the organism’s behaviour
operant conditioning
Mirror neurons
cell in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated by specific motions when an animal both performs and observes that action
cell in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated by specific motions when an animal both performs and observes that action
Mirror neurons
Preparedness
evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared stimuli over others owing to their survival value (e.g., snakes, heights, phobias)
evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared stimuli over others owing to their survival value (e.g., snakes, heights, phobias)
Preparedness
tendency for animals to return to innate behaviours following repeated reinforcement
Instinctive drift
Instinctive drift
tendency for animals to return to innate behaviours following repeated reinforcement
Memory
Retention of information over time
Retention of information over time
Memory
Sensory Memory
the shortest-term element of memory. It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended.
the shortest-term element of memory. It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended.
Sensory Memory
Short-term Memory
seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, according to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971). Items can be kept in ________ memory by repeating them verbally (acoustic encoding), a process known as rehearsal.
seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, according to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971). Items can be kept in ________ memory by repeating them verbally (acoustic encoding), a process known as rehearsal.
Short-term Memory
Long-term Memory
the final stage of the dual memory model proposed in the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model, in which information can be stored for long periods of time. (indefinitely)
the final stage of the dual memory model proposed in the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model, in which information can be stored for long periods of time. (indefinitely)
Long-term Memory
Decay
fading of information from memory over time
fading of information from memory over time
Decay
Interference
loss of information from memory because of competition from additional information
loss of information from memory because of competition from additional information
Interference
Retro-interference
interference with retention of old information due to acquisition of new information
interference with retention of old information due to acquisition of new information
Retro-interference
Pro-active interference
interference with acquisition of new information due to previous learning of information
interference with acquisition of new information due to previous learning of information
Pro-active interference
The magic number
the span of short-term memory, according to George Miller is seven plus or minus two pieces of information
the span of short-term memory, according to George Miller is seven plus or minus two pieces of information
The magic number
Chunking
organizing information into meaningful groupings, allowing us to extend the span of short-term memory
organizing information into meaningful groupings, allowing us to extend the span of short-term memory
Chunking
repeating information to extend the duration of retention in short-term memory and promote the likelihood of transfer to long-term memory
Rehearsal
Rehearsal
repeating information to extend the duration of retention in short-term memory and promote the likelihood of transfer to long-term memory
Maintenance rehearsal
repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short-term memory (e.g., phone number)
repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short-term memory (e.g., phone number)
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal
linking stimuli to each other in a meaningful way to improve retention of information in short-term memory (e.g., remembering names)
linking stimuli to each other in a meaningful way to improve retention of information in short-term memory (e.g., remembering names)
Elaborative rehearsal
semantic
Long-term errors in memory, (based on the meaning of the information);
Long-term errors in memory, (based on the meaning of the information);
semantic
acoustic
short-term errors, based on the sound of the information we have received)
short-term errors, based on the sound of the information we have received)
acoustic
Primacy effect
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well
Primacy effect
Recency effect
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well
Recency effect
graph depicting both primacy and recency effects on people’s ability to recall terms on a list
Serial position curve
Serial position curve
graph depicting both primacy and recency effects on people’s ability to recall terms on a list
von Restorff effect
Tendency to remember stimuli that are distinctive or that stick out like sore thumbs from other stimuli
Tendency to remember stimuli that are distinctive or that stick out like sore thumbs from other stimuli
von Restorff effect
Semantic memory
our knowledge of facts about the world (e.g., capital of Thailand)
our knowledge of facts about the world (e.g., capital of Thailand)
Semantic memory
Episodic memory
recollection of events in our lives
recollection of events in our lives
Episodic memory
Explicit memory
memories we recall intentionally and of which we have conscious awareness
memories we recall intentionally and of which we have conscious awareness
Explicit memory
Implicit memory
memories we don’t deliberately remember or reflect on consciously
memories we don’t deliberately remember or reflect on consciously
Implicit memory
Procedural memory
memory for how to do things, including motor skills and habits
memory for how to do things, including motor skills and habits
Procedural memory
our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or more quickly after we’ve encountered similar stimuli
Priming
Priming
our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or more quickly after we’ve encountered similar stimuli
Encoding
process of getting information into our memory banks (many strategies – very individualistic)
process of getting information into our memory banks (many strategies – very individualistic)
Encoding
Mnemonic
a learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recall (e.g., HOMES)
a learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recall (e.g., HOMES)
Mnemonic
Pegword method
Rhyming (e.g., one is a bun – bun is the pegword)
Pictures (from textbook – hippocampus – hippo camping under a tree)
Rhyming (e.g., one is a bun – bun is the pegword)
Pictures (from textbook – hippocampus – hippo camping under a tree)
Pegword method
Method of Loci
Places or location
Places or location
Method of Loci
Keyword Method
depends on your ability to think of an English word (keyword) that reminds you of the word you are trying to remember
depends on your ability to think of an English word (keyword) that reminds you of the word you are trying to remember
Keyword Method
Schemas
organized knowledge structure or mental model that we’ve stored in memory
organized knowledge structure or mental model that we’ve stored in memory
Schemas
Scripts
“stories” that we have for certain events; social stories used with different target groups
“stories” that we have for certain events; social stories used with different target groups
Scripts
Retrieval cues
hints that make it easier for us to recall information
hints that make it easier for us to recall information
Retrieval cues
Recall
generating previously remembered information
generating previously remembered information
Recall
Recognition
selecting previously remembered information from an array of options
selecting previously remembered information from an array of options
Recognition
Relearning
reacquiring knowledge that we’d previously learned but largely forgotten over time
reacquiring knowledge that we’d previously learned but largely forgotten over time
Relearning
Distributed practice
Studying in smaller increments/chunks over a longer amount of time
Studying in smaller increments/chunks over a longer amount of time
Distributed practice
Mass practice
Studying in large increments over a brief amount of time (massed)
Studying in large increments over a brief amount of time (massed)
Mass practice
Encoding specificity
Phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it
Phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it
Encoding specificity
Context-dependent learning
superior retrieval of memories when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context
superior retrieval of memories when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context
Context-dependent learning
State-dependent learning
superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding
superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding
State-dependent learning
Engram
physical trace of each memory in the brain (Karl Lashley)
physical trace of each memory in the brain (Karl Lashley)
Engram
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation
Gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Suggestive memory technique
procedure that encourages patients to recall memories that may or may not have taken place
procedure that encourages patients to recall memories that may or may not have taken place
Suggestive memory technique
Misinformation effect
creation of fictitious memories by providing misleading information about an event after it takes place
creation of fictitious memories by providing misleading information about an event after it takes place
Misinformation effect
Suggestibility Misattribution Bias Transcience Persistence Blocking Absentmindedness
Seven Sins of Memory
Seven Sins of Memory
Suggestibility Misattribution Bias Transcience Persistence Blocking Absentmindedness
Features of language (4)
Phonemes, Morphemes, Syntax, Extralinguistic information
Phonemes, Morphemes, Syntax, Extralinguistic information
Features of language (4)
Phonemes
the sounds of our language
the sounds of our language
Phonemes
the smallest units of meaningful speech
Morphemes
Morphemes
the smallest units of meaningful speech
the grammatical rules that govern how we compose words into meaningful strings
Syntax
Syntax
the grammatical rules that govern how we compose words into meaningful strings
Extralinguistic information
elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to interpreting its meaning, such as facial expressions and tone of voice
elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to interpreting its meaning, such as facial expressions and tone of voice
Extralinguistic information
Related words often have similar-sounding initial consonant clusters
phonesthemes
phonesthemes
Related words often have similar-sounding initial consonant clusters
Pragmatics
the practical knowledge used to comprehend the intentions of a speaker and to produce an appropriate response
the practical knowledge used to comprehend the intentions of a speaker and to produce an appropriate response
Pragmatics
Social Pragmatics Account
suggests that specific aspects of the social environment structure of language learning
suggests that specific aspects of the social environment structure of language learning
Social Pragmatics Account
General Cognitive Processing Account
Proposed that children’s ability to learn language results from general skills that children apply across a variety of activities (e.g., children’s ability to perceive, learn, and recognize patterns may be all they need to learn language)
Proposed that children’s ability to learn language results from general skills that children apply across a variety of activities (e.g., children’s ability to perceive, learn, and recognize patterns may be all they need to learn language)
General Cognitive Processing Account
Linguistic determinism
view that all thought is represented verbally and that, as a result, our language defines our thinking
view that all thought is represented verbally and that, as a result, our language defines our thinking
Linguistic determinism
Linguistic relativity
view that characteristics of language shape our thought processes
view that characteristics of language shape our thought processes
Linguistic relativity
Before we read we must:
- realize that writing is meaningful
- understand that writing moves in a specific direction
- learn to recognize the letters of the alphabet
- learn that printed letters have specific sounds
Thinking
any mental activity or processing of information, including learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, and deciding, often in an attempt to reach a goal such as solving a problem
any mental activity or processing of information, including learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, and deciding, often in an attempt to reach a goal such as solving a problem
Thinking
Cognition
Includes both contents (what you know) and processes (how you manipulate these processes)
Includes both contents (what you know) and processes (how you manipulate these processes)
Cognition
Framing
the way a question is formulated, which can influence the decisions people make
the way a question is formulated, which can influence the decisions people make
Framing
Problem solving
generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal
generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal
Problem solving
Algorithm
step-by-step procedure to solve a problem (e.g., fixing a carburetor, performing a surgical procedure, making a sandwich)
step-by-step procedure to solve a problem (e.g., fixing a carburetor, performing a surgical procedure, making a sandwich)
Algorithm
Emotion
Mental state or feeling associated with our evaluation of our experiences
Mental state or feeling associated with our evaluation of our experiences
Emotion
Seven primary emotions
Anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise, contempt
Display rules
cross-cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions
cross-cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions
Display rules
theory of emotion that argues that body reactions precede and drive the subjective experience of emotions (I feel afraid because my heart is pounding)
James-Lange Theory
James-Lange Theory
theory of emotion that argues that body reactions precede and drive the subjective experience of emotions (I feel afraid because my heart is pounding)
a theory of emotion that argues that body reactions and subjective experiences occur together, but independently (The dog makes me feel afraid and my heart pounds).
The Cannon-Bard Theory
The Cannon-Bard Theory
a theory of emotion that argues that body reactions and subjective experiences occur together, but independently (The dog makes me feel afraid and my heart pounds).
a theory of emotion that argues that the cognitive interpretation, or appraisal, of a body reaction creates the subjective experience of emotion
The Schachter Theory or Two-factor Theory
The Schachter Theory or Two-factor Theory
a theory of emotion that argues that the cognitive interpretation, or appraisal, of a body reaction creates the subjective experience of emotion
Non-verbal Expression of Emotions
Facial features; Body language; Gestures
Proxemics
the study of personal space
the study of personal space
Proxemics
Public distance
3 metres (12 feet for more)
3 metres (12 feet for more)
Public distance
Social distance
1.25 to 3 metres (4 to 12 feet)
1.25 to 3 metres (4 to 12 feet)
Social distance
Personal distance
0.5 metres to 1.25 metres (1.5 to 4 feet)
0.5 metres to 1.25 metres (1.5 to 4 feet)
Personal distance
Intimate distance
0 to 0.5 metres (0 to 1.5 feet)
0 to 0.5 metres (0 to 1.5 feet)
Intimate distance
Instincts
unlearned characteristic patterns of responding that are controlled by specific triggering stimuli in the world; not thought to be an important factor in explaining goal-directed behaviour in humans
unlearned characteristic patterns of responding that are controlled by specific triggering stimuli in the world; not thought to be an important factor in explaining goal-directed behaviour in humans
Instincts
Primary drive
a psychological state that arises in response to an internal physiological need, such as hunger or thirst
a psychological state that arises in response to an internal physiological need, such as hunger or thirst
Primary drive
Secondary drive
a drive learned by association with a primary drive (e.g., the need for money)
a drive learned by association with a primary drive (e.g., the need for money)
Secondary drive
Homeostasis
the process through which the body maintains a steady state, such as a constant internal temperature or an adequate amount of fluids
the process through which the body maintains a steady state, such as a constant internal temperature or an adequate amount of fluids
Homeostasis
Incentive Motivation
external factors in the environment – such as money, an attractive person, or tasty food – that exert pulling effects on people’s actions (Incentive theories – theories that propose that we’re often motivated by positive goals)
external factors in the environment – such as money, an attractive person, or tasty food – that exert pulling effects on people’s actions (Incentive theories – theories that propose that we’re often motivated by positive goals)
Incentive Motivation
Achievement Motivation
a need for achievement that varies in strength across individuals; its strength on any given task depends on a. one’s expectations about success and b. how much value one places on succeeding at the task
a need for achievement that varies in strength across individuals; its strength on any given task depends on a. one’s expectations about success and b. how much value one places on succeeding at the task
Achievement Motivation
