Midterm Flashcards
Which forces have shaped the contemporary experiences of women workers?
Social, political, and economic forces
The diversity of women’s work experiences include…
- managerial, low-wage labor, professional, and service
- paid and unpaid work, “second shift”
- production and consumption, globalization and migration
What are the issues affecting women in the workforce?
Equal pay, childcare, glass ceiling, “old boys” network, and sexual harassment
What is the second shift?
According to Arlie Hochschild, the second shift is defined as “social science research indicates that to combine work and family life during the course of just one year, women must work the equivalent of an extra month of twenty-four work days compared to men.”
The extra duty amounts to about 15 hours of more work for women each week than men.
What is the traditional “Leave it to Beaver” family? Is it still the norm?
A male breadwinner, a housewife, and one or more children. It is no longer the norm and only represents less than 10% of all families.
True or false: Labor-force participation of women has experienced dramatic growth since the 1960s.
True.
Women’s rate of participation grew from __% (1890) to just over __% (2000).
18%; 60%
By 2000, what was the percentage of all women with small children younger than one year who were in the labor force?
58%
According to the book, what is a paradigm?
A paradigm tells us what is there and what is not, what is to be taken seriously and what is not, what are data and what are not.
True or false: Women’s roles were defined in terms of the family (wife and mother), private and invisible (management of household).
True
Which type of roles do men perform?
Task-oriented, public, and visible roles
True or false: Until the 1970s, the study of work studied both men and women at work
False. It only studied men at work
True or false: work done outside the market economy is not measured or recorded (i.e., home-based work)
True. If not recorded or measured, it is invisible and therefore has no economic value.
If home-based work were measured, the work of housewives in America alone would amount to approximately ___ of the U.S. GNP
One-fourth
True or false: women who work display many psychological distress symptoms and feel incompetent and unfulfilled. They state that they would never work even if they didn’t need to.
False. They have fewer psychological distress symptoms than women who don’t work, and are found to be more assertive, more involved in the family’s financial-planning, and receive greater respect from their family
According to the book, what two types of women are there?
Career primary
Career family
According to the “ladies’ choice” theory, the explanation for income inequality and sex segregation is the result of…
Women’s “preferences” for “supportive” nurturing occupations such as nursing and elementary school teaching.
To suggest that women’s inferior economic position results from choices they make is to identify them as…
“Victims by choice”
What is the superwoman?
The woman who can
- Make a full, nourishing breakfast for her wonderful well-dressed children
- Then go to work and chair a meeting of the board of trustees in the morning, and meet with new clients during the course of the afternoon
- After work, she comes home to cook and serve a gourmet dinner for her family
- She is a woman who entertains in her spotless house, and has a warm, nonproblematic relationship with her husband
The superwoman model is in part the creation of the media in the ___ and ___
1980s; 1990s
What is wrong with the idea of “superwoman”?
It implies that only exceptional women can integrate work and family life, and perpetuates the traditional notion that household labor is women’s work.
True or false: Religious and legal institutions convey patriarchal message that women’s role is primarily that of wife and mother
True
True or false: Women’s lives and their work differed drastically depending on their race, class, and marital status.
True
Which type of work did women have to do during the civilization period?
Cooking, cleaning, caring for children, spinning, weaving; making lace, soap, candles, and shoes
While single women remained within the domestic sphere as “assistant homemakers,” married women…
Had the nature of their work depended on the economic status of their husband.
Local poor laws encouraged poor women to work rather than become recipients of relief. Which job types did they have to choose from?
Laundresses, house servants, or cooks
Middle-class white women during the colonization time period had a few more job options than poor women, such as…
Innkeepers, shopkeepers, crafts workers, nurses, printers, teachers, landholders, physicians, and midwives
In the South, how were African Americans exploited during the colonization period?
They were exploited not only as workers but as breeders of slaves, and as sex objects for white men.
Who wrote “Ain’t I a Woman?”
Sojourner Truth
In the North, African Americans worked as…
domestic servants, spinners, weavers, and printers.
True or false: Prior to European colonization, North American women played very important roles in the economic life of their communities.
True. They engaged in agricultural work, gathered plants and herbs, tilled soil, sowed seeds, raised children, and sometimes hunted.
What happened to Native Americans due to colonization?
They were pushed off their lands, depriving them of food and livelihood, culture, and traditions, and forced them onto reservations and coerced them to assimilate.
During the industrialization period, what were the differences between married women and single women?
Married women were expected to stay home while the husband provided for them. Single women were encouraged to work in factories with extreme oppressive conditions, from 5am to 7:30 pm, to prepare them for life as a wife and mother.
By the ___, immigrant women (both single and married) and men replaced women in the mills.
1850’s
True or false: During WWII, an increased number of white women entered new fields of industry, particularly in male-dominated occupations.
False. It was during WWI
In 1933, during the Depression, the National Economy Act…
Only allowed one federal salary per married couple, which forced women out of the workforce due to their husbands almost always earning higher wages
During WWII, the War Manpower Commission…
Instituted a massive advertising campaign to attract women to the munitions factories and war industries
True or false: Women had access to skilled, higher-paying industrial jobs during WWII.
True
What happened at the end of WWII?
Tremendous public pressure on women demanded that they abandon their work roles and return to the domestic sphere so men could take back their old jobs.
Women have participated in the labor movement both as ____ and ____.
Leaders and rank-and-file members
What were the advantages and disadvantages of labor unions?
Disadvantages: many unions prevented women from obtaining union cards, and discriminated against those who did.
Advantages: unionization helped women increase their pay and to diminish the historical gap between men and women. It also gave women a sense of sisterhood
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) organized skilled labor but excluded…
Women, non-whites, and immigrants
What was the purpose of the International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union? When was it founded?
It was founded in 1900 and brought together women of different racial and ethnic backgrounds.
In the early 1970’s…
The AFL-CIO approved the Equal Rights Amendment, and the Coalition of Labor Union Women (CLUW) held its first conference. It targeted issues such as daycare, affirmative action, and pay inequalities.
True or false: African American women remained the smallest group in domestic service until the 1970s.
False. They were the single largest group in domestic service.
By the ____, African American women were employed in “white collar” jobs: clerical and sales, as well as professional jobs in business, health care, and education.
1980s
Native American women’s participation rate in the labor force in 1970 was __% and rose to __% by the early 1990s. By 2000, the percentage was __%
1970: 35%
1990s: 55%
2000: 56.8%
When did the largest number of Chicanas migrate to the United States? From where did they migrate? Why did they migrate? Where did they settle?
During 1916-1920, they migrated from Mexico due to labor shortages during WWI. They settled in the Southwest and Midwest.
Women of color earned ___ than white women, who earned ___ than white men.
Less; less
True or false: Asian American women have had and continue to exhibit high labor-force participation rates and relatively high economic status compared to women of other racial and ethnic groups.
True
_____ is the extension of free-market capitalism to all regions of the world.
Globalization
True or false: According to the book Working Women in America, even when women enter male-dominated fields, they tend to be toward the lower end of the wage/prestige scales.
True
What is the glass ceiling?
The barrier that prevents many women from attaining the most powerful, the most prestigious, and the highest-paying jobs in work organizations.
Are there any obvious obstacles barring women from obtaining powerful, prestigious, high-paying jobs?
No, but the metaphor of “glass” implies that the barrier is invisible.
Among full-time workers, women currently earn only about ____ of what men earn.
3/4
What is the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act? When was it signed into law?
It is a federal law that restored worker protections against pay discrimination based on age, religion, national origin, race, and sex. It allows individuals who face pay discrimination to seek rectification under federal anti-discrimination laws. It was signed into law by President Barack Obama in 2009.
What does the Human Capital Theory entail?
Women do not invest in those qualities–education, training, or job-related experience–that led to a “return on investment” in the labor market.
What is the “crowding” effect?
Women crowding the lower-tier primary sector.
What was the Protective Legislation used for?
It was based on women’s lesser physical strength and their childbearing responsibilities. It barred women from entering certain occupations: mining, smelting, working in taverns, cleaning, and moving machinery.
What was Muller v. Oregon? When did it take place?
It took place in 1908. It upheld an Oregon statute that placed limits on the number of hours a woman could work, on the theory that the court has a right to protect the “procreative functions” of all working women.
What is the Equal Pay Act of 1963?
It stipulates that men and women must receive equal pay on jobs for which performance requires equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and which are performed under similar working conditions.
What does Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 do?
It makes it unlawful to “discriminate because of race, color, religion, or national origin, in hiring or firing; wages; fringe benefits; classifying, referring, assigning, or promoting employees; extending or assigning facilities; training or retaining or apprenticeship; or any other terms, conditions, or privileges in employment.
What is affirmative action?
Employers were required to seek out and give preference to women and minorities for those occupations in which they were underrepresented, even if male candidates appeared to have better credentials.
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission…
Initially resisted enforcing the provisions concerning sexual discrimination, but even encouraged such discrimination by publishing guidelines that expressly allowed employers to publish employment ads in classified columns label by sex; limited budget and administrative problems hindered Title VII’s enforcement.
Title IX of the Educational Amendments Acts of 1972 caused…
Female participation in team sports to grow enormously; also extended into admission policies and affirmative-action programs
What did the women’s movement recognize?
It recognized that the idea of gender equality must be actively promoted, both at the institutional and personal levels, and that ideas promoting gender inequality must be actively resisted. It has always recognized the need for women to have more power within the institutions that control their lives.
___ is biologically determined at conception by the type of sperm that fertilizes the egg.
Sex
___ is determined socially; it is the societal meaning assigned to male and female.
Gender
Each society emphasizes particular roles that each sex should play, although there is wide latitude in acceptable behavior for each gender. This is the product of ___, and how it generates inequalities between the sexes in income, prestige, power, and life choices in general.
Socialization
True or false: Collectively, research findings presently do support the conclusion that women and men are significantly different in temperament or in intellectual abilities.
False. They do not support this idea.
What is the definition of socialization?
It is the process of learning how to think about and act in particular situations and particular social roles.
What are the agents of socialization?
The family, educational system, peer groups, and the media
How does family influence gender socialization?
Many children see household chores still predominantly done by their mothers, even with the increase in women’s labor-force participation. Social learning occurs via role models.
How does the educational system influence gender socialization?
Prior to mid-1970s, virtually all aspects of curriculum and of extracurricular activities reinforced traditional gender roles. Examples: sentences referring to both sexes used the male pronoun exclusively, guidance counselors encouraged gendered careers, etc.
Girls’ participation in sports increased dramatically after _____, which mandated equal opportunity for boys and girls to participate in team sports.
Title IX of the Education Amendments in 1972
True or false: In 1972, fewer than 300,000 girls compared to 3.6 million boys participated in high school sports
True
By 1995, how many girls and boys participated in high school sports?
2.2 million girls, 3.5 million boys
How do teachers treat boys compared to the way they treat girls?
They give boys more attention and more encouragement to be assertive.
Boys are ___ confident whereas girls are ___ confident in school.
More; less
How many points are in the math gap on the Scholastic Assessment Test between boys and girls?
35 points in 1971 and 2001
True or false: Girls end up having worse cognitive development, lower occupational aspirations, and lower self-confidence and self-esteem when attending regular schools than they do attending single-sex schools.
True
Which are the most powerful agents of socialization?
Peer groups. They tend to encourage same-sex groups and “gender appropriate” behavior
Youth culture emphasizes gender stereotypes by assuming…
Boys are supposed to be athletic, tough, and not overly expressive, while girls are supposed to be beauty-oriented and demure.
The media is another agent of socialization that reinforces traditional gender stereotypes through a number of ways. How exactly does it influence society?
Newspapers and news magazines written by men for men, while women dominate “non-news” and their magazines mostly focused on getting and keeping a man and making oneself beautiful. Women are much more likely to be portrayed as more submissive and unsuccessful, and in television advertising, women are depicted as housewives and mothers; 96% of voiceovers are male (because the male voice is the voice of authority)
Because many women of color are less likely to be exposed to strong gender stereotypes, they are also more likely than their white counterparts to…
Pursue undergraduate degrees in technical fields, as well as to pursue professional degrees in fields like law, medicine, and dentistry.
Women are receiving ___ than half ( __%) of the bachelor’s degrees granted each year.
More; 56%
Strongest predictor of annual income is ___.
Education
True or false: Clerical work has always been considered “women’s work”
False. It was actually originally considered “men’s work.” According to the 1870 Census, only 3.5 percent were women.
What did men use clerkship for?
They used it as an apprenticeship, an option to move up in the company; the position had an “aura of responsibility”
What led to the increasing demand of clerical workers of both genders? Were women of color allowed to work as clerical workers?
Rapid expansion through technological innovations, such as the telephone and typewriter, led to increasing demand of clerical workers. It excluded women of color, though.
“____ work” helps keeps everything running smoothly and goes unrecognized
Emotional
Male clerical workers tend to “____ or ____” their work tasks and compose “cover stories”
Rename; reframe
Sexual harassment involves everything from ____ to ____.
From creating a “hostile environment” via sexual innuendo or blatant vulgarities
To unwelcome touching, unwanted and persistent advances, promising promotions for engaging in sexual activity, and attempted rape
Since 1986, U.S. law recognizes two basic forms of harassment. Which are they?
Quid pro quo (a favor granted or expected for something in return) and hostile environment
Prior to the 1900s, how were women active in the military?
They worked in gender-specific roles such as nurses, cooks, and clerical support staff
While not granted official military status, Congress did establish two Corps. What were they called and when were they established?
Army Nurses Corps, established in 1901
Navy Nurses Corps, established in 1908
What did the Navy WAVES stand for? Which war were they part of?
Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service. They were part of WWII, established in 1942
What did the Navy WAACs stand for?
Women Auxiliary Army Corps
What did the WAVES and WAACs demonstrate?
They demonstrated “a turning point in the history of women’s participation in the military” and also demonstrated “that women were capable of doing outstanding jobs in male-dominated occupations.”
What kinds of rumors spread regarding women soldiers during the war?
The rumors were of “loose morals and promiscuous lifestyle.”
What was the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act of 1948? What were its exceptions?
It granted women full military status, with some exceptions: it required women to only comprise 2% of the total military; women are not allowed to occupy the position of general or admiral; women could be dismissed if they became pregnant; women could not engage in combat.
During 1990s-2012, the Clinton Administration changed the military policy for women. Which exact changes did he enact?
The only positions women could not hold were those involving frontline ground combat. They were also permitted to fly in combat missions, yet they are not allowed to serve in direct combat battalions. However, women remained predominantly in female-dominated administrative and personnel positions.
On ____, the Pentagon lifted its ban on women serving in combat, opening hundreds of front-line positions, overturning a 1994-rule prohibiting women from being assigned to smaller ground combat units.
January 2013
Women comprise about ___ of the 1.4 million military personnel
14%
Military culture focuses on two aspects: ____ and ____.
Masculinity and uniformity
What are sweatshops?
They are specific types of factories or homework businesses where “subcontractors” hire workers who try to outbid each other for contracts with manufacturers.
True or false: Sweatshops are becoming a growing issue in inner cities of several metropolitan areas, especially New York and Los Angeles
True
Today, a single parent earning minimum wage takes home how much a year?
$15,080
In 1981, in an attempt to fight inflation, the minimum wage was frozen at how much per hour? When was it bumped up?
$3.35. It was bumped up in 1990
From 1997 to 2007, the minimum wage remained stuck at $___ per hour, as, once again, the cost of living continued to increase.
$5.15
Between 2007 and 2010, what was the federal minimum wage?
$7.25
How many states chose to use their power to raise the minimum wage?
Nineteen
What does part of Article 9 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of the Child (1959) say?
It states that a child “should grow up in a family environment, in an atmosphere of happiness, love, and understanding,” and “not be separated from his or her parents against their will.”
True or false: ever since Harry S. Truman announced in 1949 that the Southern Hemisphere (Africa, Asia, and Latin America) was underdeveloped and needed help from the north, the north has become more than forty times richer than the south.
True. The south was better off in 1980 than it was in 1990.
What is the American Creed?
Equal opportunity, advancement, reward for performance, wife and mother, women can do it all
Functionalist models have assumptions that…
Constrain what is studied
How questions are asked
The explanations given
Also frame social policies regarding women and work
Have produced five major models of the woman worker
What are the five major models of the woman worker?
- The employed woman as “invisible”
- The employed as a social problem model
- Male work experience is the norm
- Socialization and “ladies’ choice”
- Superwoman
Work usually means ___ work.
Paid
Taking into account married women’s household work, etc., actual labor-force participation rates were between ___% and ___% for women in 1900, a rate comparable to the ___% of women counted as employed in 1988.
48.5% and 56.75%; 56.6%
What does the structuralist approach ask?
It questions the assumptions that the choice is free and points instead to the constraints imposed by society. Its focus is on basic societal institutions, such as:
- Organizations, religion, the family, the law, and practices of the economy are responsible for women getting into low-wage jobs
- Passes judgement on the structure instead of the victim, and it suggests a different strategy for improving women’s labor-force status
The most unionized sector includes…
Local government workers, teachers, police officers, and fire fighters
The percentage of African American women household workers increased from ___% in 1910 to ___% in 1940.
38.5%; 59.9%
True or false: 2/3 of Native American women are still concentrated in the “secondary” sector of the labor market, which is characterized by low wages, few or no benefits, low mobility, and high instability
True
By the 1960s, the largest occupational category for Chicana workers was…
Operatives, followed by clerical and service work
According to the author of Feminism is for Everybody, the definition of feminism is…
A movement to end sexism, sexual exploitation, and oppression.
The author of Feminism is for Everybody points out that men aren’t the problem, but ____ is.
Sexism
