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Research Methods > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Inductive Hypothesis

A

-From specific observations moving towards generalizations

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2
Q

Deductive Hypothesis

A

-Based on theory and anticipate certain outcomes

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3
Q

Directional hypothesis

A

ONE TAILED
-Specifies existence but expected direction of relationship

EX: Older pts are more at risk of falling than younger pts

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4
Q

Non-directional hypothesis

A

TWO TAILED
-Based on theory and anticipate certain outcomes

EX: There is a relationship between the age of a pt and the risk of falling

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5
Q

What are the two different research methods?

A

Qualitative and Quantitative

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6
Q

Experimental, Quasi-experimental, single-subject/case, survey, and psychometrics are all examples of what?

A

Research design

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7
Q

What are the two purposes of research?

A

Basic and Applied

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8
Q

What are two important aspects of quantitative research?

A
  1. Emphasis on objectivity

2. Generalizability to larger populations

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9
Q

What are the five characteristics of research?

A
  1. Rigor
  2. Skepticism
  3. Empiricism
  4. Logic
  5. Communality
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10
Q

Which three things does a quantitative study need?

A

Manipulation
Control
Randomization

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11
Q

Name five different controls

A 
Alternative Intervention
Placebo
Standard methods of care
Different doses/intensities
Wait-list
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12
Q

Randomization can occur in two ways. Name them.

A
  1. Random sample

2. Random assignment

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13
Q

Identify:
R X O1
R O1

A

Basic Post-test only design

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14
Q

What is a basic post-test design typically used for?

A

Comparing different outcomes

Common in pilot studies

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15
Q

Identify:
R O1 X O2 O3
R O1 O2 O3

A

Basic pre and post test design with follow up test

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16
Q

Identify:
R) 01 XA O2
R) 01 XB O2
R) O1 O2

A

Multiple interventions

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17
Q

Identify:
R) O1 X O2 O3
R) O1 O2 X O3

A

Waitlist or delayed tx.

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18
Q

Identify: and when is this useful?
R) O1 XA O2 XB O3
R) O1 XB O2 XA 03

A

Cross over design(Useful when recruitment is difficult)

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19
Q

How many phases are in a full clinical trial?

A

4

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20
Q

Truncation

A

Broadens search to include multiple forms of a word

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21
Q

Which phase does this belong?

Small scale studies using simple designs

A

Phase 1

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22
Q

What are effective search strategies?

A
  1. Transform concepts into words
  2. Identify relationships between words
  3. Format appropriately for the search
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23
Q

Products of Lit Reviews

A

Introduction/BackgroundNarrative review on a topic
Scoping review
Systematic review or meta-analysis

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24
Q

SEARCH Process: WHAT?

A
  1. Identify one’s info needs

2. Be clear about what to retrieve for translation

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25
Q

PICO

A

P: population/problem
I: intervention
C: comparison
O: outcomes

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26
Q

SEARCH Process: HOW

A
  1. Articulate/expand topic with synonyms
  2. Generate search query defining logical relationships between search terms
  3. Analyze info content to evaluate how well it corresponds to intended topic
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27
Q

Boolean AND/OR/NOT

A

AND: Match specific text of both search terms
OR: Match specific text of either search term
NOT: Match only specific text of one of search term

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28
Q

What’s nesting?

A

Allows Boolean search terms to be combined with each other in a search queryi.e. ((cats OR dogs) AND pets) AND health

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29
Q

Truncation

A

Broadens search to include multiple forms of a word

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30
Q

In which phase does this belong?Designed for safety and tolerance/optimal dose

A

Phase 1

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31
Q

In which phase does this belong?Preliminary evidence of treatment

A

Phase 2

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32
Q

In which phase does this belong?Assess feasibility of launching rigorous test

A

Phase 2

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33
Q

In which phase does this belong?Pilot test of treatment

A

PHase 2

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34
Q

In which phase does this belong?Full test of treatment

A

Phase 3

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35
Q

In which phase does this belong?RCT standard design used

A

Phase 3

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36
Q

In which phase does this belong?Develop evidence about tx. efficacy

A

Phase 3

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37
Q

In which phase does this belong?Effectiveness of intervention on general population

A

Phase 4

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38
Q

In which phase does this belong?Focus on post-approval safety surveillance

A

Phase 4

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39
Q

In which phase does this belong?Focus on long-term consequences over larger population

A

Phase 4

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40
Q

Proximity

A

Specifying relationship of terms by their nearness to each other in text of info item

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41
Q

Goals of a Lit Review

A
  1. Have thorough understanding of topic
  2. Convey the breadth of a field as context for your work
  3. Create new knowledge through comparison and analysis of existing studies
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42
Q

Products of Lit Reviews

A

Introduction/BackgroundNarrative review on a topic
Scoping review
Systematic review or meta-analysis

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43
Q

Which non-experimental research design?phenomenon existed in present is linked to past,begins with dependent variable and examines relationship with independent variable

A

RetrospectiveExample: Increased risk of death with chemical exposureLook at some dead, and some not factory workers and look back to see exposure rates correlate with deaths

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44
Q

Which non-experimental research design?Start with presumed cause and then go forward to presumed effectConsidered stronger than retrospective designs

A

ProspectiveExample: Looking for cancer in Nurses

They collected BMI data on non-cancered nurses and compared to see if a larger BMI is correlated with cancer

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45
Q

What is the Hawthorne Effect?

A

When participants change their behavior because they are aware people are watching.

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46
Q

What are three strengths to experimental design?

A
  1. Strongest evidence for intervention effects
  2. Least bias
  3. Causal relationships
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47
Q

Identify:
O1 X O2
01 X02

A

Non-equivalent control group pre-post test

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48
Q

How to formulate a search strategy

A
  1. Start broad –> narrow
  2. Keep concepts separate
  3. Mix of keywords and subject headings
  4. Boolean operators to combine concepts
  5. Employ limits and filters
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49
Q

Keywords

A
  1. Everyday language terms for: new/rare terminology Spelling variations
  2. Searches: title/abstract/article/journal title
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50
Q

Subject Headings

A
  • Term assigned to provide consistency when searching CINAHL/PubMed MeSH-Organized into heirarchy
  • Searches: only in subject field
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51
Q

Identify:

X O1 O1

A

Post Test

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52
Q

Identify:

O1 X O2

A

One group pre-post test

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53
Q

Identify:

O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6

A

Time series

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54
Q

Identify:
O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6

A

Time series nonequivalent control groups

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55
Q

Name 2 weaknesses of a quasi-experimental design

A
  1. cause and effect inferences are less compelling

2. Considered weaker designs

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56
Q

Name 2 strengths of a quasi-experimental design

A
  1. More practical for clinical settings

2. More acceptable to participants

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57
Q

Relationship, association, are words associated with which non-experimental design?

A

Correlational

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58
Q

Which non-experimental research design?

phenomenon existed in present is linked to past,begins with dependent variable and examines relationship with independent variable

A

Retrospective

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59
Q

Which non-experimental research design?

Data on both variables collected at one point in time
Not considered a design, but a method of data collectioni

A

Cross-sectional

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60
Q

Which non-experimental research design?

Start with presumed cause and then go forward to presumed effect
Considered stronger than retrospective designs

A

Prospective

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61
Q

Which non-experimental research design?

Observe, describe, and document aspects of naturally occurring incidences
Starting point for hypothesis generation
Two different types: Univariate and correlational

A

Descriptive nonexperimental research

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62
Q

Incidence and Prevelance studies are considered which kind of descriptive research?

A

Univariate

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63
Q

_______ is proportion of total population who have a particular health related condition

A

Prevalence

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64
Q

_______ is how many persons have onset of a conditon over a given time span

A

Incidence

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65
Q

Name three weaknesses of correlational research?

A

Considered the weakest research design
No causal inferences can be made
Selection Bias (selecting a population that isn’t a true representation)

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66
Q

Name three strengths of correlational research design

A

Efficient way to collect large amounts of data

Plays a role in developing evidence for casual inference laterstrong in realism

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67
Q

Which qualitative design does this describe?

Involves description and interpretation of cultural behavior seek to understand the member’s world view
Extensive fieldwork

A

Ethnography

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68
Q

Which qualitative design does this describe?

To understand people’s everyday lived experienceuseful when a phenomenon has been poorly defined or conceptualized
In-depth conversation with informants to gain access to their world and lived experiences
Reflexive journal

A

Phenonmenology

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69
Q

Which qualitative design does this describe?

Seeks to discover the main concern and basic social process of how people resolve that concern
Develop a theory to explain a basic social process grounded in data
In-depth interviews and observations are used and categorized

A

Grounded theory

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70
Q

Which qualitative design does this describe?

Systematic collection, critical evaluation and interpretation of historical evidence

A

Historical Research

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71
Q

Which qualitative design does this describe?

The story is the focus of inquiry

A

Narrative Analysis

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72
Q

Which qualitative design does this describe?

Integrate theory and practice such that people become aware of contradictions and disparities in their beliefs an social practice

A

Critical Theory

73
Q

Which qualitative design does this describe?

Researchers and participants collaborate in research process
Aim is to produce action AND knowledge and counsciousness raising

A

Participatory Action Research

74
Q

in a remote Aboriginal Australian community is the work to support a men’s self help group to plan, implement, and evaluate their activities. With support from the research team community members are acting as researchers exploring priority issues affecting their lives, recognising their resources, producing knowledge, and taking action to improve their situation. The ongoing process of reflection and action, which incorporates participant observation, informal discussions, in‐depth interviews, and a “feedback box”, is viewed by the participants as contributing to their self reported increased sense of self awareness, self confidence, and hope for the future.

A

Participatory Action Research

75
Q

The teacher shows the students a series of slides of artists’ works. After each slide, the teacher asks: “Simply from looking at the slide, can you predict if this is the work of a male artist, a female artist, or is this an impossible task?” The students write their responses and write a brief explanation regarding their decision. Often, the students will predict the gender of the artist. The teacher then encourages the students to identify what element(s) of the work influenced their decision. The teacher can relate this discussion to common stereotypes relating to gender roles (i.e. only females paint with pink, only males draw dark or ominous scenes).The teacher encourages students to identify their own biases regarding gender role expectations as they relate to artistic expression.

A

Critical theory

76
Q

in my study, the main concern of learners is finding the time to study and temporal integration is the core category which explains how the concern is resolved or processed. That is: Jugglers and Strugglers employ successful temporal integration strategies enabling them to study whilst Fade-aways and Leavers are less successful in devising and adopting temporal integration strategies. Understanding how temporal integration does or does not happen has implications for learning design and learner persistence.

A

Grounded Theory

77
Q

Ethan is a psychologist who is interested in studying how families of autistic children cope with the difficult news that their child has autism. Do they feel angry? Scared? Do they turn to family for support or to medical professionals? Do they seek out parents of other autistic children to help them through it?

A

Phenomenology

78
Q

What is “N”?

A

N=population

-Entire aggregation of cases the researcher is interested

79
Q

What is “n”?

A

n=subset of population

80
Q

What are 2 key considerations of a representative sample?

A
  1. Representativeness

2. Size

81
Q

Describe eligibility criteria

A
  • Specifies population characteristics
  • Cost
  • Practical constraints
  • People’s ability to participate
  • Design considerations
82
Q

Probability Sampling

A
  • Random sampling

- Estimates probability that an element will be included in sample

83
Q

Non-probability Sampling

A
  • Elements selected by non-random methods

- No way to estimate the probability each element will be included in sample

84
Q

Convenience Sampling

A

Non-probability Sampling

-Using those who are the most available as participants

85
Q

Snowball Sampling

A

Non-probability Sampling

-Network or chain sampling by referral

86
Q

Consecutive Sampling

A

Non-probability Sampling

-Recruiting all from accessible population over specified time/size

87
Q

Purposive Sampling

A

Non-probability Sampling

-Researcher uses knowledge about population to select sample

88
Q

Simple Random Sampling

A

Probability Sampling

-Establishing a sampling frame-Using random numbers to draw sample

89
Q

Stratified Random Sampling

A

Probability Sampling

  • Subdivide population into homogenous subsets then randomly select sample
  • Proportionate vs. disproportionate
90
Q

Multistage Cluster Sampling

A

Probability Sampling

-Selecting broad groups in stages then randomly selecting sample

91
Q

Systematic Sampling

A

Probability Sampling
-Selecting every kth case from a list
-Sampling interva
l-Need a large population size to pick from

92
Q

Sampling Bias

A
  • Systematic over-representation or under representation of population segment
  • Based on population’s homogeneity
93
Q

Sampling Error

A

-Difference between population values and samples values

94
Q

What are the steps in sampling quantitative studies?

A
  1. Identify the population
  2. Specify eligibility criteria
  3. Specify sampling plan: Methods of drawing sample and Power analysis
  4. Recruit the sample
95
Q

Describe structured self-reports in data collection

A
  1. Interview schedule: Face-to-face/telephone

2. Questionnaire the respondents complete themselves

96
Q

What types of questions can you ask in self-reports?

A
  • Open ended questions: limit how many because ppl are less likely to respond
  • Close ended questions: -Dichotomous -Multiple choice -Rank order -Forced choice -Rating -Visual Analog
97
Q

What are the differences between using questionnaires versus interviews?

A

Questionnaires:

  1. Cost
  2. Anonymity
  3. Interview bias

Interviews

  1. Response rate
  2. Audience
  3. Clarity
  4. Depth of questioning
  5. Missing info
  6. Order of questions
  7. Sample control
  8. Supplementary data
98
Q

What’s response bias?

A
  • Social desirability
  • Extreme response
  • Acquiescence response: agreeing because its easier
99
Q

What are structured observations?

A

-Documentation of specific behaviors, actions, events using formal instruments and protocols

100
Q

What are the two ways that statistics are used?

A
  1. Descriptive (describes the sample)

2. Inferential (outcome variables)

101
Q

This variable is ________ (discrete or continuous)

Takes on a finite range of values (ex: # of children in household)

A

Discrete

102
Q

Is this a discrete or continuous variable?

Also known as categorical variable

A

Discrete

103
Q

Is this a discrete or continuous variable?

Used with nominal or ordinal scales

A

Discrete

104
Q

Is this a discrete or continuous variable?

Takes on infinite range of values along specified continuum (Ex:Age)

A

Continuous

105
Q

Is this a discrete or continuous variable?

Used with interval and ratio scales

A

Continuous

106
Q

T/F Continuous variables and discrete variables can be converted into each other

A

False. Continuous variables can be turned into discrete variables, but not vice versa

107
Q

Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?Lowest level of measurement

A

Nominal

108
Q

Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?

Specify rank ordering on variable and assume equivalent distance

A

Interval

109
Q

Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?

Mutually exclusive

A

Nominal

110
Q

Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?

Attributes are ordered

A

Ordinal

111
Q

Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?

Highest level of measurement

A

Ratio

112
Q

Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?

Addresses ordering, intervals and absolute magnitude

A

Ratio

113
Q

Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?

Does not tell measureable differences between levelsf

A

Ordinal

114
Q

Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?

No real absolute magnitude

A

Interval

115
Q

Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio?

0 means a true absense

A

Ratio

116
Q

Parametric vs non parametric

Distribution free

A

non parametric

117
Q

Parametric vs non parametric

Considered less robust

A

non-parametric

118
Q

Parametric vs non parametric

Easier interpretation

A

non-parametric

119
Q

Parametric vs non parametric

Unable to interpret multivariates

A

non-parametric

120
Q

Parametric vs non parametric

normal distribution

A

parametric

121
Q

Parametric vs non parametric

Considered more powerful

A

parametric

122
Q

Parametric vs non parametric

Can study multiple variables

A

parametric

123
Q

Univariate Bivariate multivariable or multivariate?

One DV, One IV

A

Univariate

124
Q

Univariate Bivariate multivariable or multivariate?

multiple DVs

A

multivariate

125
Q

Univariate Bivariate multivariable or multivariate?

One DV, multiple IVs

A

Multi variable

126
Q

Univariate Bivariate multivariable or multivariate?

One DV, two IVs, or DVs and One IV

A

Bivariate

127
Q

Name four nonparametric statistics

A
  1. Chi-square
  2. Mann-Whitney
  3. Kruskal-Wallis
  4. Friedman
128
Q

All of the non parametric tests are between-subjects except_______

A

Friedman

Between-Subjects

129
Q

non-parametric test compares an actual number or frequency of a group to the expected number or frequency nominal data
Between group design

A

Chi-Squre

130
Q

This nonparametric test compares two groups. It is between group design and uses ordinal data

A

Mann-Whitney

131
Q

This research question indicates which statistical test?

“Is there a difference in breast self examination based on education level?”

A

Mann-Whitney

132
Q

This non-parametric test compares more than two groups. It is a between group design and uses ordinal level data

A

Kruskal-Wallis

133
Q

This research question indicates which statistical test?

Is there a difference in the medians for change in number of days of having cold symptoms among those who take placebo pill, low vitamin C, and high vitamin C?

A

Kruskal-Wallis(between groups, ordinal data, more than 2 groups)

134
Q

Nonparametric test

Within groups design 1 group measured on 3+ occasions
Ordinal Level data

A

Friedman

135
Q

Which nonparametric test is for nominal data?

A

Chi-Square

136
Q

Which nonparametric tests are for ordinal data

A

Mann-Whitney
Kruskal-Wallis
Friedman

137
Q

Which research test does this indicate?

Is there a statistically significant difference in perceived sense of well-being survey scores for individuals with clinical depression move from city to rural areas (collected prior to move, 3 months post move, and 6 months post move)

A

Friedman

138
Q

What are the two types of t-tests?

A
  1. Paired (within groups)

2. Unpaired (between group)

139
Q

Which research test is indicated?

Is there a difference between treatment and control group in relation to age?

A

Unpaired t test (independent t-tests)

Why? 
continuous data (age)Between subjects
140
Q

Which test is indicated?

Is there a difference in mean score of knowledge of breast examination from pre-test to post test?

A

Paired t-test (dependent t test)

Why?Continuous data (mean score)Within subject with pre and post test

141
Q

When is an ANOVA used?

A

When comparing three or more group means

142
Q

What is the statistic computed by ANOVA tests?

A

F-ratio

143
Q

Which ANOVA test?

Examines difference between group means of 3+ groups with only one test1 IV (categorical) 1 DV(continuous) 3 categories of IV

A

One-way ANOVA

144
Q

Which test is indicated?

What is the effect of therapist intervention, compared to nicotine patch and no treatment on number of cigarettes smoked daily?

A

One-way ANOVA
Why?
1 categorical IV (Type of therapy)1 Continuous DV (Number of cigs smoked)

145
Q

Which ANOVA?
Examines difference between 2 IVs (with 2+ categories each), and one DV(continuous)
Compares each IV with each DV

A

2 way ANOVAfactorial ANOVA or multifactoral ANOVA

146
Q

Which test is indicated?
Are counseling, compared to nicotine patch and no treatment equally effective on number of cigs smoked daily for men and women?

A

2 way ANOVA

147
Q

Which ANOVA?

Measurements taken at more than 2 time points3+ measures for DVDV is continuous

A

Repeated measures ANOVA

148
Q

Which test is indicated?
What is the difference in depression level of clients recieving mental health services by participating in group therapy sessions at pre test, 6 months and 1 year?

A

Repeated measures ANOVA

149
Q

Which test?

Purpose is to equalize differences between groups by controlling for potentially confounding variables (covariate)

A

ANCOVA

150
Q

Which test is indicated?

What is the effect of training on the running speed of adolescents who do or do not work out regularly?

A

ANCOVA
why?
Removes the gender factorIV- trainingDV-running speedCovariate-gender

151
Q

Which test?

When 2+ DVs that correlate with each other are compared to 1+ IV

A

MANOVA

152
Q

Which test is indicated?
What is the effect of different interventions (desensitization, relaxation therapy, wait-list control) on several types of anxiety (measures with 4 subscales on an anxiety measure)?

A

MANOVA

why?
DV: 4 subscales of the same testIV: desensitize, relax, control

153
Q

Which test?
When 2+ DVs that correlate with each other are compared to 1+ IV
Controls for confounding variables (covariates)

A

MANCOVA

154
Q

Which test is indicated?
What is the effect of different interventions (sensitive, relax, cotnrol) on several types of anxiety (measured 4 subscales of anxiety measure) after controlling for age and marital status?

A

MANCOVA

why?
DV: 4 subscales of the same testIV: desensitize, relax, control
Covariate: marital status, age

155
Q

Which test?

A statistical procedure designed to test the relationship or prediction between 2+ IVs and 1 DV

A

Multiple Regression

156
Q

Overall fit (R)

A

Multiple linear Regression

157
Q

In vivo

A

Directly in or on living organism

158
Q

In vitro

A

Extracting material from people and submitting to lab

159
Q

Test-retest reliability

A

Redo a test and get same results

160
Q

Internal consistency - reliability

A

Are subscales measuring the traits consistently

161
Q

Construct validity

A

Ability to measure vague concept well

EX: Love, how do you measure that?

162
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

Describe the sample (demographic tables)

163
Q

Inferential statistics

A

Make generalizations about the population from data collected

164
Q

Discrete variables

A

Categorical variables

Nominal and ordinal

165
Q

Continuous variables

A

Interval and ratio

166
Q

Nominal scale

A
  • Lowest level of measurement
  • Mutually exclusive
  • No quantitative meaning

EX: African American/Caucasian or Men/Women

167
Q

Ordinal Scale

A
  • Next level up from nominal
  • Attributes are ordered
  • Doesn’t tell measurable differences between levels

EX: FIM, no TRUE quantitative differences

168
Q

Interval

A
  • Specify rank ordering on variable and assume equivalent distance
  • No real absolute magnitude

EX: age, temp

169
Q

Ratio

A
  • Highest level of measurement
  • Addresses ordering, intervals, and absolute magnitude
  • 0 is true absence

EX: money

170
Q

Correlation

A
  • The extent to which 2 variables are related to one another
  • doesn’t mean causation
  • Pearson product moment correlation “r” for interval/ratio
  • Spearmans RHO used for ordinal data
  • Scattergrams
171
Q

Absolute risk

A

-Proportion of ppl who experience an undesirable outcome in intervention and control groups

172
Q

Relative risk

A

-Estimated proportion of an adverse outcome

173
Q

Odds Ratio

A

-Proportion of ppl with adverse outcome relative to those without it

174
Q

Null hypothesis

A

-No significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error.

175
Q

Type 1 error

A
  • Rejection of null hypothesis that is actually true
  • Researcher says there is a difference but there isn’t
  • “False positive”
176
Q

Type 2 error

A
  • DO NOT reject a null hypothesis that is false
  • Researcher says there is no difference but there actually is
  • False negative
177
Q

Multivariate

A

2 or more dependent or outcome variables

178
Q

Multivariable

A

multiple independent or response variables

Research Methods (5 decks)

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