Midterm 3 Flashcards
Benefits and negatives of communication
- provide clues of how to behave
- receivers don’t waste energy by responding incorrectly
- can get away form predation
- reduction in level of uncertainty of environment
-some organisms can give away location by communicating
Deliberate or intentional signalling
Non intentional signalling
Where natural selection has resulted in behavioural or physiological events that produce Intro for which the function is communication
When the presence of or activity of an animal leaves detectable traces in the environment
Costs of signalling for transmitted and receivers
Resources devoted to production and processors, possibility of exploitation by “unfriendly” receivers.
Resources devoted to receptors and processors, possibility of exploitation by “unfriendly” transmitters
For the cuckoo and reed warbler and the orchid and wasp examples, who are the unfriendly receivers or transmitters?
Cuckoo is unfriendly transmitter to foster warbler who must fee it.
Orchid is unfriendly transmitter to thynnine wasp
Parasitoid fly
Female flies lay parasite eggs in host tissues of an insect. They listen to cricket songs to find host. Female flies can hear the frequency of crickets because they have sensitive sound. Males ears are tuned differently and can’t hear. Male crickets voice is exploited. Female fly is an “unfriendly receiver”
Hyena signalling
Female hyenas have a pseudopenis (enlarged clitoris) that acts as a signal of subordination to show she doesn’t want to fight.
Male hyenas approach group of hyenas with an erect penis to show submission and avoid aggression.
Male Red deer example
Bugleing (vocalizing) sends a message to
- Show stays to other males (bigger body= lower frequency, high intensity and longer sound. If mother bull hears a sound equal to there’s they will fight.
- Tells females how good a mate they are
Semiochemical
A chemical (molecule, atom) that in the natural context conveys info in an interaction between two individuals, evoking in the receiver a behavioural response.
Pheromone
A semiochemical that mediated an Intraspecific interaction (signaller/ received may benefit or be harmed.
(+,-)
(-,+)
(+,+)
Allelochemical
Semiochemical that mediates an interspecific interaction
Ex: beetle and ant
Types of allelochemicals
Allomone- adaptive to signaller
(+,-)
kairomone-adaptive to receiver
(-,+)
Synomone-adaptive to both
signaller and receiver
(+,+)
(Transmitter, receiver)
Bolas spider
Drops mimic sex pheromone with silk, swinging it to disperse into air. Attracts a moth which is eaten.
Allomone (+,-)
Interspecific
Rabbit and coyote
Rabbit leaves smell in Forrest, coyote follows and eats it.
Kairomone (-,+)
Interspecific
Aphids
Tiny bugs that ruin crops produce sugary water fluid=honeydew. Carbs in honeydew are good energy sources. Ants game aphids and eat honeydew and ants drive away predators. Aphids release chemical alarm signal to drive off predator.
(+,+)
Interspecific
(+,+) pheromones
Sex pheromones of same species
(+,-) pheromone example
Honey bees lice in colonies with queen who just lays eggs. All worker females are reproductively sterile because queen produces pheromone to make their ovaries stop developing but the queen is immune to.
(-,+) pheromone example
If female are close to ovulation. the males can tell by a smell. An unqualified male may approach to mate. Males can be aggressive and mate regardless
(-,+)
Why are chemicals good info carriers
- they work in dark environments, visually interrupted environments
- messaging situations where sender and receiver are not present simultaneously (smells linger)
- currents (air or water downstream)
- distance signalling
Turbulent flow
In nature air moves in this form which is not a straight line, but irregular.
Not laminar flow (only in lab)
How do bees communicate location of good sources of nectar?
Scout bees go out and find good flowers, then they go back to colony leaving a trail of pheromones specific to their colony for others to lead.
Works up to hours after
Message dispersal by fluid movement
In air or water
Saves energy and increases the range over which chemicals may be effective because it is quicker than diffusion, but decrease the number of directions in which info can be transmitter.
Only disperse downstream
Describe how chemicals released disperse in air and result in casting behaviour
As chemical moves away molecules move downstream and outward which drops the concentration. Is it moved further it breaks up chemicals leaving patches of pheromone and pockets of nothing. Followers turn into wind and then left or right to pick up more. If smell is faint they turn other way, if strong follow. This creates a zig zag flight or casting. Once stimulation stops they turn back or opposite way. Amplitude if turns shorten the closer to the plume they get.
Volatility
Varies with molecule weight
- small molecules evaporate quicker
- bigger molecules are subject to gravity more
Describe volatility of CO2 and how water vapour attracts mosquitos
Sleeping humans breathes and produces moisture,CO2 and body odour. Closer to human has more moisture (water is heavy), CO2 has intermediate volatility, more CO2 near human than surrounding environment.
Body odours are very small and travel far distances
Anopheles gambiae
Mosquitos that are malaria transmitters
Are antrhopophilic- prefer human blood
CO2 is a good indicator of what
Something warm is around
How do human sweat glands attract anopheles gambiae
Human ecrine sweat glands produce secretions that are used as food by skin inhabiting micro flora which produce volatiles (kairomones) used by anopheles to locate and recognize human hosts.
Typically around feet
Binding affinity
The tendency for molecules to stick to each other
Semiochemical shine to neurotransmitters
Why do mosquitos go for feet
Not because they are warm, they are actually coldest.
Densist area of ecrine sweat glands where bacteria feed on it and through digestion produce short chain fatty acids that produce a huge strong scent (stinky feet). Mosquitos follow that smell
How does cheese play a role in mosquito behaviour
B. linens a bacterium used to make limberher cheese and smells like stink feet produces similar volatiles that can attract anopheles gambiae. Unfortunately, it doesn’t work in a field but only in a tube where other smells are eliminated and focussed on cheese.
Which things are all based on physical deformations of the medium (changes in pressure)
Sound, mechanical and touch
He ability of animals to produce and detect sound and the type of response depend on what
Wavelength
Short wavelength=ultrasound, attenuated much more quickly than long wavelengths
Low frequency= travel long distance but simpler messages
Sound has the advantage of
- being easy to localize by measuring arrival time differential at separated receptors
- flexibility or variability can vary by: volume, frequency and duration.
- intervals within and between sound
- nearly instantaneous
Doppler shift
Provides information about whether the transmitter and receiver are moving toward or away from each other
Sounds sounds Higher frequency the closer you get to it. And lower the further
Tungara frogs
Vocalize by making sounds through throat pouches. Sounds includes a low frequency whine, and a high frequency chuck. Whine gets attention of females and chuck shoes fitness. Loudest sound gets female(friendly receiver) but Fringe lipped Bat followed chucks to get a meal (unfriendly receiver). Males often shorten and reduce complexity of chucks to survive. If lots of frogs are around then they don’t care and hope for the best
Honest signals
Showing fitness by sound or other signal
Disadvantages of sound signalling
- requires simultaneous presence of signaller and receiver (doesn’t linger)
- Attenuation (fall off over distance)
- expense of production (especially high frequency.
- noise of wind or waves as background
- muscles can only contract at about 1kHZ or less so production of high frequency requires a multiplier
- sounds travels faster in water so hard to localize
Sounds in air carry best when
At night
Moist air
High frequency and low frequency attenuation and complexity
High- convey more info but attenuate quicker
-low frequency travels very far
Mating choruses
Boast magnitude of the signal (fireflies)
Attracts more females but increases competition
Mole crickets
Dig holes that are trumpet shaped then buzz to amplifier sound further
Electrical signalling and reception occurs only in
Water
By many lower vertebrates who are sensitive to electrical fields
-some of these fish have specialized organs for generating electrical signals
Does voltage of electrical signals work better in fresh or ocean water
Fresh, voltage is affected by ionic salt
Electrical voltage is produced where
Produced by specialized arrays of electrocytes (cells) in an electric organ that can generate a weak electric field
Describe electric signals of fish
Only a few volts (enough to communicate)
Attenuate quicker in water (only useful for 1m range)
Detection is based on distortion of emitted field by electrical activity of other individuals
Waveform and rate of discharge can convert information about species identity, sex, status and individual identity
In visual communication what is colour
Variation in wavelength
How does visual communication work
Light energy must be trapped to stimulate a receptor. Light energy is the right quantum may make an electron (in a pigment molecule) jump an orbital which may trigger a confrontational change in the molecule bound to a surface membrane so that depolarization occurs and an action potential is sent
Visual can be ____light or using____
Creating
Natural (absorbing/reflection)
Different ligaments are reactive to certain
Wavelengths of light (certain colours)
Light can be reflected or refracted
What is refraction
Bending of light from 1 medium to another with a different density which can be used to focus.
Provides basis for a lense-a way to focus light from a very wide field on to a relatively small receptor surface
Allows us to see further without having gigantic eyes
Visual messages may vary with the following
- Pulsating intervals
- Wavelength (humans sensitive to 400-750 nm, insects from 300-650 nm.
- Intensity (brightness)
Contrast
Light against dark or vice versa
Lots of contrast=obvious
lack of contrast=hidden or cryptic (Camouflaged)
Industrial melanoma in moths
Before industrial revolution, old stress has coating of lichen (light coloured, wild type) so selection favoured light coloured moths.
During industrial revolution spot coated everything making selection favour dark coloured moths (melanin from)
Visual message of movement
- horizontal
- vertical
- reducing moment or increasing conveys a message
- flicker (timing of pulses)
- shape, posture(counter shading) , position
Elephant visual signalling
Fan ear to cool down, and make themselves to look bigger by putting ears out perpendicular.
Erect ears=go away
Wave ears= I’m serious
Faster waves=gonna get stomped
Shark visual signal
Counter shading
Dorsal surface is dark coloured, central is light coloured so if looking down or up the shark is undetectable.
Change posture to show light belly for mating
Catocala
Underwing in moths
Forewings are drap and hindering are bright. If bird detects moth it exposing hind wings to make bird focus on pecking the hind wings which are practically useless
Lizard visual signal
Displays bright throat poach to attract females
The brighter and the longer it can be held out the better a mate he is. Brighter colour means a better diet since they eat colourful insects.
Bright colours attract predators so lizard must close throat poach and lay flat
Female firefly visual signal
Flash patterns convey message of species ID and sex.
How long flash is and the pattern shows female and male and species. So they don’t waste time with wrong species
Female photuris fireflies are unfriendly signallers of visual mating signals of smaller male fireflies species. They attract them by mimicking female of that species flash pattern and eat males-codebreaking
Foraging behaviour
Acquisition of food for metabolic and reproductive reserves
Plant eaters
Meat eaters
Both
Vorare
Herbivores
Carnivores
Omnivores
To eat greedily
Food has ______ but also _____ to find and thing like toxins, wastes and prey defenders may reduce value
Energy value
Costs energy
Advantage of parasites
Have food at all time when I’m host which lowers cost of energy spent to look for it
Benefits and cost equation
Gross energy-costs=net benefit
European oystercatchers
Eat mussels and are very selective of them. Go for intermediate size 30-40 mm size ones because older and larger ones have barnacles which are harder to get through, and smaller once’s aren’t worse the cost for such little reward.
Crow foraging behaviour
Crows eat snails (whelks) but most drop them to get through shell. Biggest ones while they take long have most benefit. Only drop from 5 m to save energy and reduce chance of other bird swooping in and taking it.
Animals with greatest efficiency of getting food get most net benefit and are therefore
Most fit
Forager action
- Search using information
- Overcome defences
- if successful, process or extract useful material to first and eliminate waste
Biological response of plant or animals under threat
- Avoid detection
- Of detected, escape (if possible), otherwise defend
- If successful, live on
Oriented behaviour
Locating something with purpose
Do evolutionary interaction
Selective pressure on hunted organisms to evoke ways of reducing likelihood
Attack adaptations self for defensive adaptations.
How do plants defend
Can’t move, but have large amount of undefeated levels material that cost energy to handle (hard skins, shells, throne, sticky resins, position or by recruiting/bribing protectors)
Ants protect acacias because acacias produce nectar
Animal prey are a more _____ source of ______ than plants but …
Concentrated
Calories and nutrition than plants
Can move so increases searching, pursuit and capture costs
Other approaches besides active search to predation
-stir and wait (ambush)
Best for food items that are mobile - exploits energy of food item. Forager chides locations where food item is often found or goes to
Examples of sit and wait approach
- dootlebugs build comical traps for ants and wait at bottom
- crocodiles hide out near low river crossings where water buffalos most cross
What structures sieve the environment and act as a filter
Webs and nets
Bait
Web decorations
Spider species will put special UV web designs that insects are attracted to. If spider lays on design it camouflages then from birds
Exploit energy of surrounding environment and increase amount of it that can be sampled for food
Classic predators
Consumers that eat from other animals, some kill their prey
Lions, tigers, sharks
Some feed without killing
Parasites: botfly, mosquitos
Parasites
Example
Animals that immerse themselves in their food item to reduce searching costs.
Not fly larvae are laud on host, and then penetrate into the body and feast, then exit and become fly.
I’m squirrels they end up exiting in scrotum and emasculating the males
Kleptoparasites
Exploiting of searching behaviour of other animals
An animal that steals food from another animal who already used energy to obtain it
Squirrel monkeys follow capuchins
Jackals follow leopards and looks
Vultures follow speed chases and eat dead
Why can’t animals just eat continuously
Need time for mating, watching young, digestion, defending, searching
G.U.T
Giving up time
Searching increases the more you eat because the population of food decreases in the area. So after time animal will give up searching and move on elsewhere
Monarch butterfly larvae
Larvae are immobile and can not search so parents search for milkweed and drop off larvae there where they can feed on something their digestive system can handle.
Crypsis
Anotomical crypsis
Colour crypsis
Avoiding detection
Animals that look like something else(stick big, leaf bug)
Salt and pepper moth) animals that when in proper background colours are disguised
Environmental noise
Can be of the form chemical, sound, visual….
Something that devalues the info being emitted
Distracts from main target
Signal to noise ratio and example
An animal harder to find has a higher noise to signal ratio
Australian Horned devil lizard has dark and light patches to blend in with a smilie environment
Behavioural crypsis example
Skipper butterfly caterpillars cleans its lead house so waste pellets don’t attract predatory wasps. The Frass has a strong odour which wasps used to locate caterpillars. So caterpillars shoot frass outwards to make t harder to track.
(Kairomone)
Mobbing behaviour
Parents animals will distract predator from young by all attacking the predator to distract it. (Increases environmental noise)
For black headed gills the closer the predator is to the main nesting sight the more the mobbing occurs, and the lower the location of eggs is for predators
Warning/ Alarm calls
Selfish alarm
Alarms can be in the form of ___ also
Warn family members or others of immediate potential danger.
Use warning to cause panic and chaos so the caller can get away (mongoose)
Alarms can also be
Social defence of California Ground squirrels
Females defend burrows with babies from snakes by kicking sand and harassing the snake until it leaves. In cold temperatures this is easy, in warm snake is faster so squirrels are less aggressive.
Adults have partial immunity to venom but bandies don’t
Honest signalling
A signal that lets predator know the prey is not worth eating usually because it is stronger or poisonous
Aposematic
Warning signal that a prey organism is costly or unpleasant to eat and should be avoided
Often showed by orange, yellow colours (monarch)
How do ladybird beetles make themselves look less appealing
In groups their visual colour is more obvious and turns animals away from bad taste
Advertising
Example
Opposite of hiding
Predator is made aware that prey will be hard to catch and not worth the energy
Gazelles stott and those that can the longest and faster are not worth the effort. So cheetahs go after those that can’t (honest signal)
