Midterm 3 Flashcards
EARLY MEDIEVAL EUROPE
Illuminated Manuscript
A handwritten book that has been decorated with gold or silver, brilliant colors, or elaborate designs and miniature illustrations.
Typically written on parchment or vellum (prepared animal skins)
Many illuminated manuscripts were religious in nature, including Bibles, Psalters (books of Psalms), and Books of Hours (prayer books for laypeople)
Monasteries
A religious way of life in which individuals devote themselves to spiritual work. Monasteries are communities where monks (or nuns) live, work, and worship.
Many monasteries had scriptoria where monks copied and illuminated manuscripts.
Monasteries were centers of learning and education. Monks were often among the few literate members of society.
Relic
A physical object that holds religious significance, typically associated with a saint or holy person. These items are venerated in various religious traditions, especially in Christianity, where they have played a crucial role in devotional practices, church rituals, and the culture of pilgrimage.
Pope
Religious leader in the church with great political and social influence. The Pope encouraged the development of monasticism.
Ora et Labora
A Latin phrase that translates to “pray and work” in English. It encapsulates a fundamental aspect of the Benedictine monastic tradition, particularly as outlined in the Rule of Saint Benedict.
Scriptorium
A dedicated room or area in a monastery where monks copied manuscripts. Scriptoria (plural for scriptorium) played a crucial role in the preservation and transmission of knowledge during the Middle Ages
Reliquary
A container or shrine designed to hold relics.
TYPES OF RELICS
- First-Class Relics: These are physical remains of a saint, such as bones, hair, or bodily fluids.
- Second-Class Relics: These are items that belonged to or were associated with a saint during their lifetime, such as clothing, personal effects, or items touched by the saint.
- Third-Class Relics: These are objects that have been in contact with first- or second-class relics or with the tomb of a saint.
Pilgrimage
Why would people go on pilgrimages?
- they had committed a sin and hoped to have it absolved
- they were hoping to gain release from, or reduced time in, purgatory
- they were seeking a physical and spiritual connection to an important place or person
- they were hoping for a miracle
- There is a Hierarchy of Pilgrimages
Carolingian
A significant era in European history that saw the revitalization of art, culture, learning, and politics. It roughly spans the 8th to 9th centuries, reaching its height during the reign of Charlemagne (Charles the Great). HUGE EDUCATIONAL REFORMS!
Renaissance/Revival
The Renaissance, meaning “rebirth,” was a period of cultural, artistic, and intellectual revival
Holy Roman Empire
A complex and multi-ethnic political entity that existed in Central Europe for much of the medieval and early modern periods. It was established in the early Middle Ages and lasted until its dissolution in 1806
St. Benedict
A Christian saint and monk who founded the Benedictine order and wrote the “Rule of Saint Benedict,” which became the foundation of Western MONASTICISM
Charlemagne
Born king of the Franks and really liked the Romans, so he eventually he became the King of the Holy Roman Empire
- Centered around EDUCATION and literacy of priests and government officials
- Set up an educational system
- Brought in scholars from across Europe
- Establishes scriptoriums: places to copy religious and ancient texts
-Carolingian Miniscule - standardized handwriting - Belief that studying classical texts could help prepare people to understand the scriptures better
- Great conqueror
- Expanded empire
- Forced Christianization
- Battles with the Muslims on the French and Spanish Border
- Gains keys to holy cites
- Spurred a mini renaissance called the “Carolingian Renaissance”
Saint
Individuals who were recognized by the Christian Church as having lived exceptionally holy lives and who were believed to be in heaven, interceding on behalf of the faithful
The Virgin Mary
The Virgin Mary was revered as an intercessor and advocate for believers, with many Christians praying to her for protection, guidance, and spiritual blessings.
COUNTERPART OF EVE
Pilgrimage to shrines dedicated to the Virgin Mary was a common expression of devotion in early medieval Europe
Cathedral
Monumental structures that served as the principal churches of bishoprics or dioceses, housing the cathedra or bishop’s throne. Cathedrals were not only places of worship but also symbols of the power and prestige of the Church and its bishops.
Lindisfarne Gospels
FIRST KNOWN GOSPELS WRITTEN IN ENGLISH
(by Aldred)
An Illuminated manuscript rescued from the monastery
Saved from
How does “Ora et Labora” describe life in a Benedictine monastery?
It emphasizes the dual focus on prayer or spiritual devotion and manual labor or physical work. In Benedictine monastic communities, monks dedicate themselves to a balance of contemplation through prayer and meditation, and active participation in the daily tasks and chores essential for sustaining the community. This motto reflects the Benedictine ethos of harmonizing spiritual and earthly responsibilities, fostering a life of discipline, humility, and service.
How did monasteries contribute to learning and literacy during the early Middle Ages?
Preservation of knowledge (in scriptoriums)
Monasteries served as hubs of cultural exchange, where monks from different regions and backgrounds converged. This facilitated the sharing of ideas, knowledge, and manuscripts, fostering intellectual collaboration and innovation.
How were illuminated manuscripts made?
Very meticulously by skilled artisans, often monks or professional scribes, usually on parchment or vellum
What was the relationship between women, academics, and monasteries in the early Middle Ages?
Women’s monastic communities, known as nunneries or convents, played a significant role in medieval society. Nunneries and women’s monastic communities offered women opportunities for education, intellectual growth, and leadership
Why were monasteries often the targets of Viking raids?
They were wealthy and defenseless, and the vikings wanted to attack Christians with resources
What was the significance of relics in the Middle Ages? How did the veneration of relics and saints tie in to pilgrimages and the building of Cathedrals?
Relics were physical remains or personal artifacts of saints. They were believed to hold spiritual power and people honored relics to seek blessings or healings.
People would travel to places where relics were located (pilgrimages) and buildings were build to house these relics (cathedrals)
How was the Virgin Mary viewed in the Middle Ages?
- Mother of God: Mary was seen as the mother of Jesus Christ, making her an important figure in Christianity.
- Intercessor: People believed Mary could intercede with God on their behalf, making her a powerful advocate for humanity.
- Ideal of Womanhood: She was considered the ideal model of purity, motherhood, and compassion.
What did Western and Northern Europe look like politically after the fall of the Western Roman Empire?
Western and Northern Europe were politically fragmented and divided into various smaller kingdoms and territories. FEUDALISM: Over time, a feudal system developed, where local lords held land from more powerful nobles or kings in exchange for military service.
Why did Charlemagne call his kingdom the “Holy Roman Empire”?
Because the land region itself was still called the Roman Empire. Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne “emperor of the Romans” in Rome
Why is the age of Charlemagne termed the “Carolingian Renaissance”? What accomplishments or advancements contributed to this designation? What were Charlemagne’s goals?
Carolingian Renaissance: revival of art, culture, and learning that took place during his reign.
- Educational reforms
- Script and manuscripts
- Architecture & art
- Legal and administrative reforms
Charlemagne’s Goals:
- Christianization
- Unification & Stability
- Cultural Revival
- Strengthening Royal Authority
LATE MEDIEVAL EUROPE
St. Francis of Assisi
Mendicant Preacher or “Friar”
(beggar that gave up all of his possessions to travel and serve cities)
- Raised in a wealthy family then put in prison
- He then sought freedom through giving up all of his earthly possessions
- He emphasized the humanity and suffering of Christ (which contributes to art at the time)
- Emphasized the beauty of God’s creations and serving the poorest of the poor
- Legends of St. Francis with “stigmata” (similar wounds to Christ) and talking to animals
- Became a Saint very shortly after dying
St. Thomas Aquinas
Raised in an ambitious family who did not support his desire to become a Dominican priest (they locked him into a tower and hired a prostitute to make him change his mind)
Taught at the University of Paris (brilliant!)
Becomes one of 33 Doctors of the Catholic Church (writings considered essential to the Church’s beliefs)
Wrote Summa Theologica
- Famous for his question: “How do we explain the relationship between faith/revelation and reason/learning?”
(nearly everyone at the time was on one extreme or the other) - The 5 Ways (Proof of the Existence of God)
William the Conqueror
Before he became the king of England, William I was one of the mightiest nobles in France as the duke of Normandy, but he is best remembered for leading the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, which changed the course of English history and earned him the sobriquet William the Conqueror.
Romanesque
“Roman Style”
Attached Buttresses (external support)
Rounded Arches
Return of Sculpture (often on tympanum or door jams)
Thick Walls
Barrel and Groin Vaults
Gothic
“Barbaric”
Flying Buttresses (detached support)
Pointed Arches
Large Stained Glass Windows
Very Detailed Sculpture
Height & Verticality
Ribbed Vaults
Tympanum
Semicircle above doors - usually the most highly sculpted part
Attached Buttress
A structural element that projects from a wall and is integrally connected to it, providing additional support and reinforcement.
Scholasticism
The meshing of classical philosophy with Catholic theology
- critical method of philosophical analysis
- based on a method of dialectical reasoning that poses a question, offers opposition arguments, then offers a counterproposal
- writings of Aristotle went from being rejected by Catholic church to totally embraced by them
Flying Buttress
Detached from the wall, connected by an arch or half-arch that transfers the load away from the wall to a separate pier or buttress further out from the building.
Door Jambs
Vertical pillars on the sides of the doors - usually highly decorated
Rose Window
A large, circular window, often filled with intricate stained glass and tracery, typically found in Gothic cathedrals and churches
Lancet Window
A tall, narrow window with a pointed arch at the top, characteristic of Gothic architecture.
Mysticism of Light
The symbolic and spiritual significance attributed to light in various religious and philosophical traditions. Light has a lot to do with revelations.
Stained Glass
A form of decorative art characterized by colored glass pieces arranged to form patterns, images, or scenes.
Gargoyle
Sculptures on Notre Dame (sometimes served as rain gutters)
Crusades
A series of religious and military campaigns that took place between the 11th and 15th centuries, primarily aimed at recapturing Jerusalem and other holy sites in the Near East from Muslim control.
Often seen as a type of “pilgrimage” for Christians. :(
East/West Schism
The formal division between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church, which occurred in 1054. This schism resulted from a complex mix of theological, political, cultural, and ecclesiastical differences that had been developing over centuries. (a.k.a. The Great Schism)
Stigmata
Bodily marks, sores, or sensations of pain in locations corresponding to the crucifixion wounds of Jesus Christ
Bayeux Tapestry
An embroidered cloth nearly 70 meters (230 feet) long and 50 centimeters (20 inches) tall, depicting the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England. It offers insights into medieval warfare, clothing, and daily life.
Last Judgment Tympanum of St. Lazare
St. Lazare was built to house the bones of Lazarus (but they were stolen). The Last Judgement Tympanum is this huge depiction of Jesus Christ with lots of people being judged above the front doors
Notre Dame de Paris
“Our Lady”
Huge cathedral
St. Denis
A legendary 3rd-century Christian martyr and saint. According to his hagiographies, he was bishop of Paris in the third century and, together with his companions Rusticus and Eleutherius, was martyred for his faith by decapitation.
Also a location in Paris, France: the birthplace of Gothic architecture
Chartres
A historic city in France. Home to the Chartres Cathedral, which was also a pilgrimage destination
What were the limitations of Romanesque architecture? How did Gothic architecture strive to overcome these limitations?
Romanesque Architecture: Predominantly developed from the 9th to the 12th centuries.
LIMITATIONS: Thick walls needed to support the heavy stone roofs limited window space, height, and restrained the room for artistic expression
Gothic Architecture: Evolved from the 12th to the 16th centuries, following the Romanesque:
- Introduction of flying buttresses -> large stained-glass windows
- pointed arches & ribbed vaults -> taller, more slender structures
- GOTHIC IS technically superior and aesthetically more expressive
What does the term Romanesque mean? What elements of Roman architecture do we see incorporated into Romanesque architecture?
“Roman-Like”
- Rounded Arches
- Barrel Vaults & Groin Vaults
- Thick Walls & Heavy Masonry
- Columns & Piers
Why might someone choose to embark on a pilgrimage in the Middle Ages? How does this tie into beliefs about purgatory and judgment?
- Spiritual Merit & Penance
- Devotion & Veneration
- Seeking Miracles
Pilgrimages were thought to reduce the time souls spent in purgatory through the merit gained from the journey
What event does the Bayeux Tapestry depict? Who made it?
Events leading up to and including the Norman Conquest of England, specifically the Battle of Hastings in 1066. It narrates the story of how William, Duke of Normandy, claimed the English throne and defeated King Harold II of England.
Commissioned by Bishop Odo of Bayeux, William the Conqueror’s half-brother
What was the Great Schism (East/West Schism) of 1054? What were some of the factors that led up to the Schism?
The formal split between the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Orthodox Church in the East. Caused by:
- theological differences
- eastern church rejected the Pope’s authority
- cultural and political tension
- and excommunication of leaders
What themes did you see in the Medieval poems we read? How do these themes tie into the culture of the time period?
Chivalry & Knighthood
- code of conduct central to feudalism
Religious Devotion
- huge concerns for authority and afterlife
Heroism & Adventure
- value of courage, strength, and loyalty
Courtly Love & Romance
- social interactions within the aristocracy
Moral Lessons & Allegories
- literature was meant to uphold ethics
Who was St. Francis of Assisi? How is he usually depicted? Why? How did St. Francis affect people’s perceptions of Christ and their relationship to Him?
Italian-Catholic Friar, Deacon, and Preacher.
Depicted in a brown robe with animals.
Devoted to poverty, chastity & obedience.
St. Francis’s life was seen as a profound imitation of Christ, focusing on living in poverty and serving others. His actions and teachings encouraged people to see Christ as someone approachable and compassionate.
Why is Jerusalem so sacred to Jews, Christians, and Muslims? How did Jerusalem factor into the Christian Crusades?
Judaism: Western wall is the last remnant of the second temple built (holiest site)
Christianity: The place of the crucifixion of Jesus (pilgrimage destination)
Islam: Home to the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock (Night Journey)
What were some of the long-term effects of the Crusades?
- Increase in trade and wealth of merchants
- Increased interaction between east and west (exposure to learning of the Islamic Kingdoms and rediscovery of some ancient texts)
- Strengthening of both kings and pope
- Sacking of Constantinople weakens the Byzantine Empire
- The Knights Templar (first international bankers and stuff of legends)
What happened to Constantinople (and the Hagia Sophia) in the 4th Crusade?
Venetian merchants and soldiers sack Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire never really recovers after these Italian-Christian crusaders came and wrecked the Hagia Sophia
What was scholasticism? What Greek philosopher did St. Thomas Aquinas consider the most important? How did the Muslims and the Byzantine Empire contribute to the rise of scholasticism and the study of classical texts in Medieval Europe?
Scholasticism: aimed to reconcile Christian theology with classical philosophy.
St. Thomas Aquinas considered Aristotle the most important Greek philosopher.
The Muslims & Byzantine Empire helped spread scholasticism by:
- preserving & translating classical Greek texts
- transmitting knowledge to Europe
What was St. Thomas Aquinas trying to reconcile?
Christian theology with classical philosophy, particularly Aristotelianism
Leopard = Incontinence
Also symbolic of the city of Florence
(black and white spots)
Lion = Violence
Possibly symbolic of Holy Roman Empire
(pride)
She-Wolf = Fraud
Could be symbolic of Rome
(or the Pope!)
DANTE
Indulgences
Controversial practice in medieval Christianity whereby individuals could obtain remission for the temporal punishment due to sins, either for themselves or for souls in purgatory
A partial or complete remission of the temporal punishment for sins that had already been forgiven in confession, granted by the Church
Contrapasso
To suffer in return (a related punishment symbolizing the idea that we receive what we desire in life)
Simony
The practice of buying or selling ecclesiastical offices, positions, or spiritual favors within the Christian Church
The exchange of money, gifts, or other benefits in exchange for religious offices, such as bishoprics, priesthoods, or benefices, as well as for sacraments or spiritual favors
Purgatory
A state or place of temporary punishment or purification for souls who have died in a state of grace but are not yet ready for heaven due to remaining venial sins or the temporal effects of forgiven mortal sins
Limbo
A speculative concept regarding the afterlife for unbaptized infants who die without having committed personal sin, as well as for righteous individuals who lived before the time of Christ and thus could not have been baptized
Usury
The practice of charging excessive or unlawful interest on loans, particularly in a religious or moral context
Divine Comedy
An epic poem written by the Italian poet Dante Alighieri in the early 14th century
Inferno
Hell
Paradiso
Paradise
Purgatorio
Purgatory
Dante Alighieri
Italian poet, philosopher, and politician, best known for his epic poem, the Divine Comedy
Virgil
A Roman poet of the Augustan period, best known for his epic poem, the Aeneid
Beatrice
An Italian noblewoman who is best known as the muse and idealized love interest of the poet Dante Alighieri.
What three works make up the Divine Comedy? What did Dante originally call his work? What does the term “comedy” mean in this context?
Inferno
Purgatorio
Paradiso
Dante originally called his work “comedy”
Into what three main groups does Dante divide hell? What reasons does he give for putting fraud at the bottom? Do you agree?
Incontinence
Violence
Fraud
He puts fraud at the bottom because only humans have the ability to consciously decide to betray another. No animal can do that. Fraud is taking the most godlike quality we have been given (agency) and using it to take advantage of another. The worst type of fraud is against those who love and trust us.
- FRAUD CORRUPTS NOT ONLY THE INDIVIDUAL, BUT ENTIRE SOCIETIES
What does the dark wood symbolize?
The dark wood represents the struggles and challenges that all humans face when they lose sight of their spiritual goals and become lost in the moral complexities of life.
How does Dante’s exile from Florence play into the storyline of the Divine Comedy?
His personal experiences of being unjustly exiled, separated from his home, family, and friends, parallel the themes of alienation and the quest for redemption in the poem.
Who is Dante’s guide through hell? Why do you think Dante chooses this person?
Virgil (the pagan poet) is his guide
Virgil symbolizes the HEIGHT of human reason, so Dante uses Virgil as his guide through inferno and purgatory because he wants to illustrate that we can grow a lot with early tutors, teachers, and examples
* ELEVATING OURSELVES THROUGH REASON
However, Virgil has his limitations because he wasn’t a Christian (reason and learning alone is not sufficient to make it into paradise)
What does Virgil symbolize in the Divine Comedy? What are the limits of Virgil’s abilities in the Divine Comedy? How is this symbolic? What do Beatrice and Mary symbolize?
Virgil symbolizes the highest we can reach with human reason alone. He cannot enter paradise, so Dante goes on without him with Beatrice as his new guide. Beatrice symbolizes divine love and Mary symbolizes compassion and mercy, as well as purity and intercession
How does Dante use contrapasso in the Inferno?
Each punishment reflects the nature of the sin itself, creating a form of poetic justice where the punishment is a direct consequence or mirror of the sin committed.
Be familiar with the main themes and storyline of the Inferno.
- Divine Justice and Punishment
- Sin and Morality
- Redemption and Salvation
- Human Free Will and Responsibility
- Corruption and Greed
- The Power of Literature and Knowledge
What was happening in the Catholic Church during this time period? What was simony? What were indulgences? How do we see criticisms of these practices coming out in Dante’s Inferno?
Simony is condemned in the Third Bolgia of the Eighth Circle of Hell, reserved for those who corrupt the Church by selling sacred things, such as sacraments and church offices.
The sinners are placed headfirst in holes in the ground, with their feet protruding and set on fire. The flames burn according to the gravity of their sins.
How is Dante’s Divine Comedy like a medieval pilgrimage? What is the ultimate goal? How is this achieved through the process of the journey? How does Dante change as he progresses?
The ultimate goal of this journey, much like a medieval pilgrimage, is spiritual enlightenment and union with the divine.
Dante becomes increasingly pure and his understanding of divine love deepens (Beatrice becomes more and more beautiful)
What is the ultimate punishment in the Inferno? How is this different than Purgatory?
The loss of hope (no progression!)
People in purgatory are content in fire knowing that they will eventually make it to paradise
Those at the vestibule of hell
People who Virgil doesn’t name because they made no choice at all
Circle 1 (Limbo)
Not heaven but a place without punishment
- Limbo of the Fathers (Abraham, Moses…)
- Limbo of the Infants (NOT doctrine)
- Limbo of Virtuous Pagans (NOT doctrine)
Other People in Limbo: Homer, Horace, Ovic, Lucan, Virgil, Hector, Aeneas, Julius Caesar, Saladin, Aristotle, Socrates, Plato…
Circles 2-5 (For the “Incontinent)
Incontinent=lacking self-restraint / control
2-The Lustful: blown about by the wind never getting satisfied
3-The Gluttonous: wallow in stinky snow being attacked by three-headed dog
4-The Hoarders & Wasters: eternally arguing between each other
5-The Wrathful: some constantly beating each other up, others stuck under water
Circle 6 (The City of Dis (satan))
Virgil can’t get Dante into the gate because they’re entering a place where people went against reason and intentionally chose sin.
Heretics
Circle 7 (The Violent)
1st - Violent against others: boiling in a river of blood and shot at by centaurs
2nd - Violent against self: turned into trees because they denied their own bodies
3rd - Violent against God or nature: laying or running on burning sand with raining fire
Circle 8 (The Fraudulent)
Dante sees this as the worst sin because Fraud is what corrupts society.
Circle 9 (Traitors)
Home do the dumb satan
