midterm 3 Flashcards
habituation and dishabituation
habituation: when looking time declines after training on one stimulus; baby increases looking time at novel stimulus (then decay); studies discrimination
dishabituation: if looking time increases to new stimulus (after habituation to old stimulus); indicates that the infant can discriminate the new stimulus from the old one
conditioned head-turn
infants turn head toward novel stimulus; in training, is rewarded for head turn; used for studying discrimination (same/different judgments); method adds conditioning to encourage head turning; head turning eventually happens in advance of stimulus due to reinforcement
preferential looking
infants look longer at preferred stimulus; studies preference
enculturation
the acquisition of implicit or explicit knowledge about the norms, symbols, and rules of the society within which one lives
infant-directed singing and infant-directed speech
infant-directed singing: softer, heightened pitch, slower tempo, added nonsense syllables, interactive, different timbre; purposes include creating bonds between parent and child, helping to modulate infant’s mood, teaching words and other things
infant-directed speech: “motherese”; heightened speech used when talking to infants; higher pitch, exaggerated contour (rising to get attention, falling to put to sleep), slower, nonsense syllables, highly repetitive
isochronous vs non-isochronous meter
isochronous meter: regularly spaced beats
non-isochronous meter: irregularly spaced beats; rare in Western music, common in some other cultures
predisposition
innate ability or preference
prenatal hearing
hearing starts 25 weeks after conception; sounds elicit heartrate changes; the fetus hears mother’s rhythmic breathing, walking, heartbeat; can hear loudness attenuated by about 30 dB; the amniotic fluid is a low-pass filter (muffles the higher frequencies); fetuses in the last trimester can detect speech contour, timing of phonemes, changes in loudness, overall pitch level, and some musical patterns, and they prefer mother’s voice to other voices
Lauren Trainor and Sandra Trehub
Trainor: studied ID speech, scale structure, and babies’ perceptions of consonance and dissonance
Trehub: studied how children perceive sound (i.e., ID speech and lullabies)
equal vs unequal step scale
equal step scale: whole tone scale; more difficult to process
unequal step scale: major and novel (11-step chromatic) scales
arousal vs valence
arousal: what makes music seem high in energy/activity
valence: (primarily mode) is what makes music seem positive vs. negative
basic emotions
evolved to help us survive; exist in all cultures (universal); have distinct facial expressions; happiness, sadness, anger, fear in music (disgust, surprise in studies outside music)
circumplex model of emotion
Russell; music can convey four quadrants; (1) - valence, + arousal (angry, upset); (2) + valence, + arousal (excited, elated); (3) + valence, - arousal (relaxed, serene); (4) - valence, - arousal (depressed, lethargic)
felt emotion
“emotional induction”; the emotion that a piece of music makes us feel; the “emotivist” position that music arouses emotions in listeners (often via expectation denial or fulfilment); general/cultural and personal/specific associations; Leonard Meyer and David Huron
perceived emotion
“emotional recognition”; the emotion that we perceive in a piece; the “cognitivist” position that music represents or refers to emotions in some way, either by imitating them or through some conventional means; Peter Kivy and Deryck Cooke
frisson
chills
fight, fright, freeze
Huron; “reaction responses” to music; ITPRA interpreted “biologically”; frisson (chills, “hair-raising” effect) produced by a preparation to fight, laughter produces the flight response (panting, unnatural punctuated exhaling of air), awe is the freeze response (breath holding)
information theory
(liking and preference) the idea that processing is optimal when information flows at a moderate level; we are bored (lose interest) if information flows too slowly, and we are overwhelmed (stressed and anxious) if it flows too quickly
ITPRA theory
Huron’s theory of expectation and how it relates to emotion; five categories of expectancy responses that explain a wide range of emotional responses to music; emotion arises from combinations of the five responses; imagination (imagining possible events), tension (preparation for an imminent event), prediction (accuracy of expectation), reaction (“knee-jerk” response to surprise), appraisal (conscious assessment of outcome)
Kivy’s “contour” and “convention”
“contour”: resemblance between music and human behavior; “natural” connections (between music and body)
“convention”: learned from culture; learned association of musical features with emotive ones; enculturation and learning; no obvious “natural” connection
Leonard Meyer (vs David Huron)
emotion arises from denial of expectations; denies that music gives rise to specific emotions; expectation violations create undifferentiated arousal
mood-congruent vs mood-incongruent stimuli
mood-congruent stimuli: when film scenes are paired with music that is emotionally matched with them (positive or negative)
mood-incongruent stimuli: when film scenes are paired with music that is not emotionally matched (“soundtrack dissonance”); used for special effect
pre- vs post-cognitive theory of emotion
pre-cognitive theory: first experience emotional response, then cognitive appraisal; acoustic features of music (tempo, loudness, timbre) automatically activate primitive responses in peripheral nervous system (i.e., amygdala)
post-cognitive theory: first generate a cognitive interpretation, then experience emotion
secondary emotions
socially constructed (culturally dependent); difficult to portray with music; jealousy, love, betrayal
semantic and semantic differential scales
semantic scale: rates a piece on multiple adjectives (i.e., happy and sad)
semantic differential scale: a rating scale with emotion at either end (i.e., sad-happy or relaxed-agitated)
tension
a “pre-outcome response”, caused by the anticipation of an upcoming event (like the resolution of a suspension); reflected in physiological responses (i.e., heart rate and perspiration); heavily influenced by context
Daniel Berlyne
argued that there is an optimal level of complexity; very simple stimuli are dull and create boredom, very complex stimuli are overwhelming and create anxiety; proposed that liking (“hedonic value”) has an “inverted-U” relationship to complexity
exposure/familiarity effect
people prefer a more familiar stimulus when they don’t remember encountering it before; been found for both real and artificial stimuli
groove
an inclination to move to music; presumably a desirable quality that can (loosely) be considered an aspect of liking
inverted-U theory
Szpunar, Schellenberg, & Plinar (2004) “satiation effect” that liking increases with exposure but then (with orchestral excerpts) tends to decrease after a certain point; proposed by Daniel Berlyne (1970), as liking’s (“hedonic value”) relationship to complexity (relating arousal to the complexity of the stimulus)
Orii McDermott
a musical adaptation must be innate, specific to music, and uniquely human; the music we like is part of our identity (sense of self); studied music in dementia patients; music themes (here and now, who you are, connectedness, music affects mood, music affects care-home environment, communication between caregivers)
Mozart effect definition, music and math, verbal skills, IQ
Mozart effect: a temporary increase in the affect or performance of research participants on tasks involving spatial-temporal reasoning after listening to Mozart; the possibility that listening to certain types of music enhances inherent cognitive functioning
music and math: small but reliable effect with higher achievement for individuals who voluntarily choose to study music; individuals exposed to a music curriculum in school might show higher achievement; listening to music while thinking about math problems may slightly enhance mathematical ability
verbal skills: share auditory processing and hierarchy/”syntax” with music; modest support for benefits from music (phonological awareness, or the understanding that words are made up of smaller sounds, phonemes; temporal order processing, or the ability to determine temporal order of acoustic input)
IQ: does not seem to be boosted by music
music therapy definition, passive vs active
music therapy: the use of music by a trained professional to achieve therapeutic goals; prescribed for an individual, begins with assessment, creates a relationship through music, addresses non-musical goals, evidence-based on neurological and physiological research and an artist’s intuition and observations; documented and re-evaluated
passive music therapy: patient listens to music to achieve a desired outcome (reduction in anxiety, guided imagery for discussion, palliative care)
active music therapy: creative participation in music-making by the patient; individual non-musical goals (i.e., playing instruments to gain motor control and attention, singing to improve oxygen saturation and stimulate language)
PF&C (“paper folding and cutting”) test
a test of abstract spatial reasoning/imagination; imagine a sequence of folds and cuts and determine what the paper would look like if it was unfolded
transfer
occurs when experience or training in one activity enhances the ability to perform a related activity (from one domain to another)
well-being
corresponds with a general conception of health
dementia
a progressive neurogenerative disease, often caused by Alzheimer’s disease (or other pathology); typically identified when patient shows mild cognitive impairment (MCI) that gets in the way of daily functioning (i.e., language, memory, thought); more common in women and disproportionately affects POC
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
a range of disorders, often seen in children (more often in boys) and often involves difficulties in verbal communication and social interaction (timing conversational cues, “theory of mind” or interpreting others’ intentions); in some cases, may sometimes affect expression more than perception; music (active music therapy with improvisation) can improve communication skills
Parkinson’s disease (PD)
affects timing of motor control (walking, arm/hand movements, speech, facial expressions); impacts release of dopamine, which affects timing; rhythmic stimulus (“rhythmic cueing”) can help patients coordinate movements, especially regular movements like walking (“gait”)
