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Bcsc 260 > midterm 1 > Flashcards

midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

adaptation

A

a trait that is heritable, is common in a population, and emerged due to evolutionary pressure

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2
Q

auditory cheesecake

A

the idea that music combines functions that are adaptive in themselves, but that the combination of these functions as music is not an adaptation

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3
Q

Darwin

A

said that music is a human universal, present “in men of all races, even the most savage”; believed early vocal communication was more similar to song than to modern speech (“proto-language”); argued for sexual selection (music used to attract mates, shows physical fitness, and may ward off competitors)

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4
Q

arguments for natural selection

A

promoting emotional conjoinment, nurturing social bonds, enhancing cognitive and social skills in infancy, training coordinated movement

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5
Q

emotional conjoinment

A

one argument for natural selection; music as a connection between infants and caregivers

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6
Q

exaptation

A

something whose current adaptive purpose is different from its original one

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7
Q

HMMMM

A

Mithen’s hypothesis (exaptation) describes musilanguage; holistic (utterances carry meaning as a whole), manipulative (emotional states and behavior), multimodal (sound and movement), musical (rhythmic and melodic features), mimetic (messages imitate or resembled things they referred to)

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8
Q

holistic utterance

A

meaning carried by a whole message; not separable words

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9
Q

McDermott & Hauser

A

argued against Pinker that some musical abilities may have been associated with music, right from the start (were not originally made for purposes other than music); made an experiment where sounds were played on opposite sides of a room; concluded that human consonance preference qualifies as an adaptation

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10
Q

musilanguage

A

a precursor to both language and music (Steven Brown); (stage 1) characterized by lexical tone (higher pitch refers to spatial location or higher emotion; determines the meaning of a word), (stage 2) the particulate principle added (simple elements combine to form complex structures)

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11
Q

natural selection

A

favors traits that promote survival

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12
Q

Pinker

A

believed that some components of music have adaptive value, but that music as a whole does not; argued for “auditory cheesecake”

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13
Q

prosody

A

patterns of rhythm and sound

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14
Q

sexual selection

A

favors traits that promote reproduction

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15
Q

vocal grooming

A

one argument for natural selection; music as nurturing social bonds; where a single vocalizer “services” multiple listeners

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16
Q

ANOVA

A

analysis of variance; compares two or more means; can be used with multiple independent variables; looks for main effects and interactions

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17
Q

between- vs within-subjects design

A

between: two (or more) groups of subjects with the same task
within: one group of subjects exposed to every treatment or condition

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18
Q

confound

A

an uncontrolled variable

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19
Q

correlation

A

shows relationship between two continuous variables x and y (coefficient r is between -1 and 1); does not imply causation

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20
Q

dependent vs independent variable

A

dependent: quantitative measure
independent: our manipulation/factors

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21
Q

ecological validity

A

“real world” stimuli/situations (i.e., real musical experience)

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22
Q

null hypothesis

A

there is no relationship in the population (and anything we observe in our sample only arises by chance)

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23
Q

t-test

A

compares two means (degrees of freedom df = N-1); reject the null hypothesis when p < .05 (p = probability of results due to chance)

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24
Q

nominal vs ordinal vs continuous variables

A

nominal: category data; differentiated by name, not magnitude (i.e., gender, instruments)
ordinal: data with rank ordering (i.e., untrained, amateur, professional)
continuous: measurement on continuum (i.e., time, distance, speed, % correct)

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25
Q

absolute pitch (AP)

A

the ability to identify the musical name of a specific tone, or, conversely, to produce some musical pitch without comparing the note with any objective reference tone

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26
Q

amplitude/intensity

A

wave height; corresponds to a sound’s loudness

27
Q

beats

A

heard at frequency equal to the difference between them; perceived when two frequencies are close together (dissonant sounds, within the critical band)

28
Q

critical band

A

range of frequencies in which dissonant interactions occur (basilar membrane); property of the basilar membrane rather than a physical structure

29
Q

critical period

A

(as in language learning) the optimal time in development to acquire language

30
Q

chroma

A

one basic cognitive dimension of pitch; aka pitch-class

31
Q

compression vs rarefaction

A

compression: the upper peak of pressure (compression-rarefaction cycle)
rarefaction: the lower peak of pressure (compression-rarefaction cycle)

32
Q

decibels (dB)

A

measures intensity (amplitude squared); log scale; 0 is the threshold of hearing; 120 is the pain threshold

33
Q

low- vs high-pass filter

A

low-pass: lower frequencies let through (i.e., bass)
high-pass: higher frequencies let through (i.e., vocals)

34
Q

Fletcher-Munson curves

A

equal-loudness curves; to create a sensation of equal loudness, higher intensity is required at extreme (high or low) frequencies

35
Q

Fourier analysis

A

helps us analyze a wave; breaks a wave down into sine-wave components

36
Q

frequency

A

measurement of the number of cycles of a periodic wave that pass a point per unit of time; determines a sound’s pitch

37
Q

fundamental

A

a combination of sine waves sounding simultaneously

38
Q

Hertz (Hz)

A

cycles per second (x Hz = 1/x seconds)

39
Q

Levitin

A

tested musicians and non-musicians; chose CDs containing familiar songs and asked participants to sing; over half of the participants sang within one semitone of the correct key

40
Q

missing fundamental

A

when a tone with all of the partials except the fundamental sounds, but the fundamental is still heard

41
Q

overtone/harmonic/partial

A

multiples of the fundamental (together create a complex tone)

42
Q

period

A

the amount of time for one cycle (x Hz = 1/x seconds)

43
Q

pitch helix

A

looks like a corkscrew; depicts musical pitch as varying along pitch height and pitch-class

44
Q

pitch height

A

one basic cognitive dimension of pitch; from low to high

45
Q

relative pitch (RP)

A

understanding pitches in relation to context (intervals to surrounding pitches, or position in scale)

46
Q

Schellenberg & Trehub

A

found that memory of music from popular culture is acquired from implicit learning and is surprisingly precise (see notes for experiment)

47
Q

Schellenberg, Iverson, & McKinnon

A

explored the hypothesis that absolute features of a stimulus (especially timbre) may be useful in song identification; took sounds from popular songs and tested college psychology undergraduates (between-subject design); used a pretest to make sure participants were familiar with songs then played short clips and had them guess which song it was; participants scored above chance in the 200 millisecond, 100 millisecond, and 100 millisecond high-pass conditions (not in 100 millisecond low-pass or 100 millisecond backwards)

48
Q

sensory consonance vs dissonance

A

consonance: an aspect of acoustics and the auditory system; sounds “go together,” create a “smooth” effect
dissonance: an aspect of acoustics and the auditory system; created when the overtones of two fundamentals are close together (even if the fundamentals are far apart); two tones close together (within the “critical band”) cause physical interference between their regions on the basilar membrane, which results in beating; sounds clash, create a rough effect

49
Q

Shepard tone

A

a sound with only pitch-class (no pitch height); multiple octaves; Bell-shaped amplitude shape (filter)

50
Q

sine tone

A

a wave of a particular shape; has three properties (frequency, amplitude, phase)

51
Q

spectrum

A

partials of different amplitudes

52
Q

spectrogram

A

shows multiple partials from multiple notes; shows time (x) against frequency (y)

53
Q

timbre

A

tone color; depends on spectral (partials/overtones/frequencies present in the note) and temporal (the way the partials change in amplitude/volume over time)

54
Q

two-component theory (AP)

A

pitch memory (many people have this) and pitch labeling (“AP” listeners have it)

55
Q

auditory limits on pitch perception

A

20 to 20,000 Hz

56
Q

sound process

A

tympanic membrane: eardrum; transforms air pressure vibrations to mechanical motion
ossicles: malleus/incus/stapes –> hammer/anvil/stirrup; amplify vibrations and transfer them to the oval window (which then transfers the wave to the cochlea)
cochlea: the snail-shaped structure that converts the mechanical energy from the stapes to electrochemical energy via the basilar membrane; filled with fluid
basilar membrane: separates a sound into frequency components (fundamental and overtones) and sends separate signals to the brain for each component (the strongest frequency component determines the pitch we hear)
auditory nerve: triggered by hair cells in the Organ of Corti; sends impulses to the auditory cortex in the brain

57
Q

cochlear implant

A

a surgically implanted electronic device that helps people with an impaired middle or inner ear; the auditory nerve must be intact for this to work; external microphone behind the ear, a sound/speech processor that analyzes the sound and splits it into frequency bands, and a transmitter; internal receiver/stimulator and electrode array inside of the cochlea (stimulates the auditory nerve)

58
Q

tonotopic mapping

A

the cochlea is organized from low to high pitch; sound waves at particular frequencies excite the basilar membrane at particular regions; high tones are at the base; low tones are at the apex

59
Q

auditory scene analysis

A

organizing auditory input by using knowledge of how sounds are generated in the environment; simultaneous integration (grouping partials into notes); sequential integration (grouping notes together –> good continuation, similarity, proximity)

60
Q

Bregman

A

that we use “auditory scene analysis” (evolutionary perspective); two principles –> (1) simultaneous sounds (partials) from the same source will start and stop at the same time and change in similar ways, (2) sounds of a sequence usually change gradually and not suddenly when they come from a single source

61
Q

Gestalt principles

A

proximity: really important in music; when pitches are close together, we group them together
similarity: timbre and spatial location
good continuation: i.e., when a note is briefly replaced by another but it sounds like it continues through the stop

62
Q

contour

A

the ups and downs (melody)

63
Q

interleaved melodies

A

when notes of one melody alternate with notes of another

Bcsc 260 (3 decks)

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