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BIOL 215 > Midterm 3 > Flashcards

Midterm 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Aquatic Communities - 2 types

7 and 1

A

Marine: intertidal, sub-tidal kelp beds, continental shelf, open ocean, deep ocean, coral reefs and arctic/antartic
Freshwater lakes

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2
Q

Vertical Zonation

A

This is the phenomenon associated with the different strata.

Generally, narrow bands that species live within strata

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3
Q

Sub-tidal Kelp Bed Communities

A

Highest primary productivity of all communities on the planet
Provides physical protection to shoreline communities
Foraging and shelter for a large number of species
These are stratified habitats

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4
Q

Zonation of Pelagic Zone (5)

A 
Epipelagic (0-200m)
Mesopelagic (200-1000m)
Bathypelagic (1000-4000m)
Hadal (4000-6000m)
Benthic - seafloor
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5
Q

Coral Reefs

A

Tropical waters have very little phytoplankton so coral reefs with zooxanthellae symbionts provide the basis of the trophic pyramid
Greatest species diversity on the planet
Highly efficient recycling of nutrients

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6
Q

Arctic (6)

A

mainly frozen ocean surrounded by land
4000m water depth, 3m ice cover
upper 15m reduced salinity from large rivers
A complex layering of Atlantic and Pacific waters
High abundance of plankton in summer, arctic cod, seals, beluga, narwhal, bowhead whale
The polar bear is a terrestrial predator

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7
Q

Antarctic (6)

A

Large frozen continent surrounded by the ocean 98% ice cover up to 2 km in thickness
Mountainous 4500m elevation
Low species diversity - bacteria, lichen penguins
Surrounding very cold oceans with high primary productivity and species diversity
Weddell seal, leopard seal, elephant seal, penguins, Orca, humpback
No terrestrial predator

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8
Q

Lake Classification (4)

A

Oligotrophic - clear water lakes (low productivity)
Dystrophic - stained (tea-coloured) lakes (low productivity), very acidic
Mesotrophic - intermediate productivity
Eutrophic - high productivity lakes

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9
Q

Lake Stratification Summer

A

Wind causes mixing within Epilimnion
Separating layer (thermocline)
With cold water below (hypolimnion)

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10
Q

Lake Stratification Fall and Spring

A

Constant mixing of the whole water column
Due to max density of water at night in fall causes it to fall and mix
In spring ice melt sinks and mixes

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11
Q

Lake Stratification WInter

A

Frozen top with an upper oxygen environment
And an oxygen sparse dead zone at the bottom
Due to decomposition occurring down there

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12
Q

Tundra

A 
3-6 months of darkness with ice/snow
Permafrost
Cold hardy plants
Surface soil thaws in summer
3 Strata -- Soil, ground, low shrubs
Many aquatic/terrestrial insects
Shorebirds, waterfowl (seasonal migrants)
Hare, fox, wolves, caribou, grizzly bear, polar bear 
High productivity during spring/summer
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13
Q

Temperate Coniferous Forests (Taiga/boreal forest)

A 
Conifers
Few shrubs 
The ground layer of ferns and mosses
Trees with monopodial growth
4 strata -- trees, shrubs, ground, soil
Short summers and long cold winters (slow decomposition)
Seasonal migrants
Occasional hibernation/torpor for residents
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14
Q

Temperate Rainforest

A

Ancient trees
4 Strata with high 3D structural complexity
Multiple species of fungi, mosses, angiosperms
High insect diversity
Species-rich riparian zones
1000 yr for seral stage recovery, after clear cut
Greatest biomass/ha for all terrestrial ecosystems on the planet

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15
Q

Tropical forests

A

6 Strata
A - emergent trees over 60m (discontinuous)
B - up to 20m (discontinuous)
C - lowest trees (continuous canopy)
D - Shrub layer, tall ferns and herbs
E - Ground layer, herbaceous plants and seedlings
F - Root/soil layer (shallow and poorly developed)
High species diversity of most taxonomic groups
High biological turnover, high recycling of nutrients
A and F are connected by vines (many epiphytes)

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16
Q

Relative nitrogen levels in strata of different ecosystems

A

Arctic – Tundra has most (90%) in soil and Taiga has about 50% in soil
Temperate – Grassland has about 30% in soil and Deciduous forests have 40% in the soil
Tropical – Savannah and Equatorial forest have similar proportion with very little in soil (<10%)

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17
Q

Polar Cell

A

Between the arctic tundra and temperate forests

Cold dry air falls

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18
Q

Ferrell Cell

A

Between the temperate forests and the deserts

Subsidence zones, cold dry air sinks

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19
Q

Hadley Cell

A

Between equatorial forests and deserts
Hot moist air rises from the equator and forms cumulus clouds
High cool dry air moves north and south and cools more

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20
Q

Latitudinal Diversity Gradient

A

This shows that generally, species diversity increases as you move towards the equator
Diversity can also differ along with the same latitude

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21
Q

Ocean depth in terms of diversity

A

Unique in that increasing depth doesn’t seem to affect the species diversity
Very consistent across the different depths

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22
Q

Marine Productivity Trends

A

Highest productivity at the poles where the cold water is nutrient-rich
This is because water sinks at 4 degrees displacing colder water up mixing in nutrients
Desert across most of the open ocean
Decent productivity at the equator due to polar currents bringing in nutrients from the rotation of the earth

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23
Q

Terrestrial Productivity Trends

A

Most of the primary productivity on land occurs at the equator
During our summer the northern hemisphere has higher productivity and during our winter the southern hemisphere has higher productivity

Productivity is mostly controlled by a combination of temperature and rainfall

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24
Q

Sunlight variation from poles to the equator

A

They generally receive the same amount of sunlight (~ 1:1)

The difference is that the equator receives more solar energy from the direct impact of photons

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25
Competition theory
At temperate latitude, the lower productivity causes broader niches and r-selection which don't allow for as many species At tropical latitudes, the higher productivity causes narrower niches and k-selected allowing for more species
26
Spatial heterogeneity theory
Increased spatial heterogeneity causes an increase in structural complexity and this allows for more niche segregation This means more species
27
Environmental Age Theory
This predicts that the older the environment is following some kind of succession, the more species richness you expect to find Increase species richness with environmental age
28
Major explanations for differences in species richness (4)
Primary productivity Competition Spatial heterogeneity Environmental Age
29
Hypotheses on biodiversity, complexity and stability (3)
Diversity-stability hypothesis (Charles Elton) The linear increase in stability as # of species increases (tropics) ``` Rivet Hypothesis (Paul and Anne Erhlich) The exponential increase in stability as species increase slows down as # of species gets large ``` Redundancy Hypothesis (Brian Walker) Flatline of stability increases at large species numbers, a sharp decrease in stability if keystone species is lost (Intertidal communities)
30
Island species numbers compared to mainland
There are disproportional fewer species numbers on islands for their area size The slope of species numbers from the area is much lower on islands (this slope is independent of distance from the mainland)
31
What causes the cyclicity and high turnover of islands?
The lack of predators (predation) allows species to go above carrying capacity and then crash This causes the cyclicity that allows for a high turnover rate A small population of a species are prone to extinction
32
Essential features of Equilibrium Theory (3)
The number of species moves towards an equilibrium between extinction and colonization as a function of island area and distance At equilibrium, actual species composition is in a continuous state of change as some species go extinct and new species colonize (high turnover as species equilibrium is reached) Can predict numbers of species but not the species composition
33
What occurs after the defaunation of small islands
The small islands that were closest to the mainland has the best and fastest recovery They also noticed that the species that persist on the islands after tend to be the species that originally occupied that island Becuase those species had specific attributes for that niche space
34
Where does speciation occur on a 3D biogeographical process map?
The highest levels of speciation occur on isolated islands of a large area. This helps to increase species richness on very isolated islands
35
Human Population Growth Trend
A rather gradual increase since 10 000 BC With only about 1/2 million people in 1700 Exponential increase up to almost 8 billion people in 2021
36
Major Impacts on Earths Ecosystem from Human Population Growth (2)
Habitat loss and habitat change
37
Deforestation Classes (3)
Selective Cutting - removal of single trees by helicopter Leaves small gaps in the canopy where seedlings can develop Most similar to natural disturbance, cost-prohibitive in most areas Variable retention - leave representative old-growth in each cut block (10-30% retention), low-profit margin due to high costs of road construction Clear Cutting - remove all trees in patches up to 2000 ha (80-year rotation), most invasive, most widespread around the globe, greatest profit margin
38
Lateritic soils
Soils leached of silica after deforestation Higher concentration of iron, manganese, aluminum, nickel These heavy metals run into the ocean and kill corals
39
Fragmentation
This is a major threat to earth ecosystems that are caused by human population growth Building roads increases the amount of edge present and this, in turn, increases the ecotone. The result is a decrease in population
40
Habitat Change: Atmospheric contaminants (7)
``` Carbon dioxide Black carbon Methane Nitrogen trifluoride Chlorofluorocarbons Sulphur dioxide Radioactivity ```
41
Evidence carbon dioxide rise is due to burning fossil fuels?
Ice cores in the arctic allow us to see trapped air bubbles of CO2 from history We can plot these to show the cyclic rise and fall of CO2 over time with a large spike in our time Living plants absorb C12, C13 and C14 but dead plants absorb no more. C14 is unstable and decomposes over time (all gone after ~1 MY) Burning fossil fuels, therefore, releases carbon into the atmosphere with no C14 You can measure atmospheric levels of C14 and compare this to amounts of C12 and C13 in the atmosphere
42
Ecological impacts of global warming on terrestrial ecosystems (9)
Northern range expansion of southern species Reduction or loss of Arctic species, seasonal migrants Loss of tundra, permafrost, sea ice Sea level rise and flooding of coastal zones Increase major weather events Loss of species with restricted distributions Increased human mortality during elevated summer temperatures Ecological shifts to early seral stage communities Exacerbates the effects of habitat loss
43
Black Carbon
This results from the incomplete combustion of carbon | It is responsible for 50% of temperature increase in the arctic
44
Methane
A single molecule of methane is more impactful on climate change than CO2
45
Nitrogen trifluoride
Industrial gas used in semiconductor manufacture | Radiative efficiency and global warming potential are relative to a molecule of carbon dioxide = 17 200 times
46
Chlorofluorocarbons
``` inert non-reactive solvent Rises high into the atmosphere UV breaks off Cl and disrupts Ozone by making OCl OCl is broken and creates O2 This breaks down the ozone layer ```
47
Sulphur dioxide
Counteracts atmospheric warming but produces smog | This produces acid rain
48
Radioactivity
Does not directly lead to global warming as it produces very few greenhouse gases The major issue is a nuclear failure, which comes with a high environmental, human and financial cost
49
Aquatic Effects (5)
``` Ocean warming Ocean acidification oil spills Industrial chemicals and Biocides Plastics ```
50
Ocean Warming
Results in melting sea ice | And major damage to coral reefs
51
Ocean acidification
This is caused by an increase in CO2 being dissolved in the ocean Causes issues for calcifying organisms Reduces iron availability to marine phytoplankton Ocean acidification also poses a major risk to coral reefs
52
Industrial Chemicals and Biocides
These are often washed into major water sources either intentionally or without our knowing They build up as they move through the trophic levels The movement of animals can transfer these chemicals very far and even into pristine environments
53
The major threat to the integrity of earth ecosystems (2)
Habitat loss/modification | Overfishing/overhunting
54
What do we need to know, to understand the ecological impact of wildlife imports (2)
The population of the animals and the duration of the import
55
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Scientific authority of climate change Major agency assessing global trends 1988
56
CITES
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species | 1975
57
Shelter Footprint (4)
How many people live in your household What is the size of your home Which housing type best describes your home Do you have electricity in your home
58
Food Footprint (2)
How often do you eat animal-based products? | How much of the food you eat is processed, packaged, imported
59
Mobility Footprint (4)
How often do you drive How often do you bus How often do you carpool The efficiency of your car
60
What is missing from the ecological footprint?
There are no mention of how many children you have This is a major impact on your footprint As population growth is one of the major drivers behind climate change
61
Kyoto Protocol (1997)
The objective was to reduce the rate of global warming by limiting the release of greenhouse gases 195 countries signed ratified 2005, first implemented 2008-2012 Doha amendment in 2012
62
Paris Agreement (2015)
Aimed at limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees and pursue efforts to limit the rise to 1.5 degrees 194 countries signed (the US withdraws 2019)
63
IUCN definition of protected area
An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means
64
IUCN category I
Strict nature reserve/wilderness area Ia: Strict nature reserve: managed mainly for science (Ecological reserve) Ib: Wilderness area: managed mainly for wilderness protection
65
IUCN Category II
National and Provincial Parks: managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation Ecosystem and habitat protection
66
IUCN Category III
National Monument: managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features (World Heritage Sites)
67
IUCN Category IV
Habitat/species management areas: managed mainly for conservation through management intervention (Introduced species removal)
68
IUCN Category V
Protected landscape/seascape: managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation (Orca Pass International Stewardship Area)
69
IUCN Category VI
Managed resource protected area: managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems (Crown land)
70
Major IUCN Concerns (6)
``` Paper Parks Design Shortcomings: position and size Internal Threats External Threats Transboundary Effects Ineffective marine protection ```
71
Paper Parks
Park names exist on maps but with no implementation or enforcement
72
Design Shortcomings
Position of parks are chosen based on minimum political and industrial opposition and are ineffective to preserve biodiversity The size of the parks are too small to preserve biodiversity due to the fragmentation effect
73
Internal threats
Infringement, poaching, fires, disease, groundwater reduction, invasive species, highways
74
External Threats
Outside the influence of management or control | headwater effects, dams, atmospheric, climate change, biocides, pathogens, invasive species
75
Trans international boundaries
These create migration corridors | And make barriers for dispersal and migration
76
Major Benefits of No-take zones (4)
Increased abundance of fish The increased presence of larger fish with an exponential increase in reproductive output Increased species diversity Recovery of competitors, biodiversity and ecosystem processes
77
Classification of levels of threat of extinction (4)
Safe: 0.1 probability of extinction (P) in 100 years (Y) Vulnerable: 0.2 P in 20 Y Endangered: 0.5 P in 10 Y Critically Endangered: >0.5 P in 10 Y
78
Approaches to conservation ecology (5)
``` Studies of fragmented areas Critical habitat approach Identifying biodiversity hotspots Park design Restoration ecology ```
79
Critical habitat approach (3)
``` Forest Age structure Nesting trees (snags) Nutrient pulses (salmon runs) ```
80
Park design (5)
Size and number (SLOSS debate) Shape Position Corridors
81
Restoration Ecology (4)
Identifying major issues in restoration Reconstruction of degraded habitats to pre-disturbance state (removal of exotic species) Augmentation of ecosystem processes (identify and supplement limiting resources and critical species interactions that facilitate recovery) ``` Sustainable development (the long-term persistence of human society and environmental processes through intelligent and ecological management) ```
82
The tragedy of the Commons
Proposed by Garret Hardin If the carrying capacity of a field is 100 cows (K=100 and N=100) Each farmer gets 10 cows If a farmer adds one more cow N=101 and K=99, this increases their income by 10% If each farmer thinks the same way and adds one cow N=100 and K =~50 (overbrowsing)
83
Possible fixes for global warming (8)
Carbon tax Carbon credits Hydroelectric - high eco. impact, low cost, few emissions Nuclear power - fission and fusion Photovoltaics - high potential, low risk, no emissions WInd - high potential, low risk Geothermal - high potential globally New technofixes: solar-hydrogen economy, high potential, low risk
84
Ecological options for the future (4)
Possible fixes for global warming Reduction in human population numbers A large expansion of terrestrial and marine protected areas (IUCN I and II) Ecological role models, educators, leadership
85
Projected Earths population in 2100 (3)
At 2011 growth rate: 18.5 billion With 2 child families: 8.7 billion With 1 child families: 1.4 billion

BIOL 215 (5 decks)

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