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BIOL1080 > Midterm 2 Study > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Study Flashcards

1
Q

Mechanisms of intercellular communication

A
  1. Direct communication
    - gap junctions
    - membrane (tunneling) nanotubules
    -mechanosignals
  2. Indirect communication
    - chemical messengers
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2
Q

Connexons

A
  • subunits that form a channel (gap junctions)
  • pore size is very small
  • permits passage of sugars, amino acids and ions between cells
  • found in all cells except mature skeletal muscle
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3
Q

Gap junction

A

First type of direct intercellular communication
Includes connexons and intercalated disks

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4
Q

Intercalated disks

A

Type of gap junction in cardiac muscle
- allows for rapid and propagation of action potentials for rhythmic contractions
- smaller than connexons
- can be acutely regulated (deactivated/activated) by dephosphorilation/phosphorylation

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5
Q

Nanotubes

A

Membrane nanotubes are a form of direct intercellular communication
- formed from the plasma membrane
- longer than gap junctions
- have larger pore diameter
- transfer nucleic acids, even small organelles between cells
-might be a way to transfer cellular components from stressed to healthy cells 

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6
Q

Mechanosignal transduction

A

Conversion of mechanical Stimuli into a cellular response 
Direct physical stress to cells, eliciting a chemical or metabolic response
Ex. mechanical stress to muscle fibres from weightlifting, resulting in increased protein synthesis

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7
Q

Indirect intercellular communication via chemical messengers

A

When you have 2 cells but nothing is directly connecting them
- paracrine
- neurotransmitters
- hormones (hydrophilic and phobic messengers)

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8
Q

Paracrine

A

Chemical messenger
- clotting factors, growth factors
- lots of chemical messengers can
Act in a paracrine manner, or endocrine manner 
- ex. Estrogen

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9
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemical messengers
Characteristics
1. Synapse distance is SHORT
Neurotransmitter signal must be tightly controlled.
- Not too many molecules released
- need an auto shut off.

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10
Q

Hormones

A

 Chemical messengers
- can be water or lipid soluble must cross boundaries(membranes)
- have specific target receptors

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11
Q

Hydrophilic messengers

A
  • water loving
  • ex. Insulin, epinephrine, serotonin
  • stored in secretory cell
  • dissolves in plasma
    NO NEED FOR CARRIER!
    Secreted by fusing secretory vesicles to membrane and releasing
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12
Q

Hydrophobic messengers

A
  • water hating or lipid living
    Ex. Steroid and sex hormones
    -storage is typically more limited
  • cannot dissolve in plasma
  • NEEDS A CARRIER
    crossing a lipid membrane is not a barrier
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13
Q

Receptor specificity

A
  1. Cells express many types of receptors
  2. There may be 100s or 1000s receptors on a cell surface
  3. Amount of receptor is controllable(can be regulated up or down)
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14
Q

Goal of chemical signal transduction

A

To change overall profile of cellular protein/enzymatic activity

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15
Q

Components of CCN

A

Control and communication network includes
- the central nervous system (brain and spinal chord
- the peripheral nervous system
(Somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system)

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16
Q

Overview of the nervous system

A

Sensory input in peripheral nervous system to central nervous to motor output in peripheral nervous system

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17
Q

Sensory input

A
  • input from sensory receptors
  • responding to external stimuli
  • in skin, muscles and joints
  • in internal organs
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18
Q

Motor output

A

In peripheral nervous system
Somatic nervous system
And autonomic nervous system

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19
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

Regulates involuntary activities such as heart rate breathing
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic

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20
Q

Parasympathetic

A

Governs body during restful conditions
Rest and digest

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21
Q

Sympathetic

A

Prepares body for stressful or emergency situations

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22
Q

5 major cell types in the adult human

A
  1. Neurons
  2. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells
  3. Astrocytes
  4. Microglia
  5. Epedymal cells
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23
Q

Signal transduction Lipophilic/ hydrophobic messenger acting on cell

A
  1. Enters cell through diffusion
    - binds to hormone receptor complex
  2. Attached to hormone response element, which binds to dna
  3. One hormone receptor complex can cause many mRNA to be formed
  4. mRNA exits the nucleus into the cytoplasm of cell
  5. Many proteins are formed from each mRNA
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24
Q

Signal transduction
Hydrophilic messenger

A

1- the first messenger binds to the receptor on cell surface
2- GDP to GTP
- GTP binds to adrnylate Cyclades
3- Atp to cAMP (the second messenger)
4- activates protein kinase, resulting in cascade of activations of another protein
5 - protein + ATP —> protein p + adp
6- this produces a response in cell

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25
Q

G-protein

A

Turn signal transduction on and off in hydrophilic messengers
Responsible for moving the signal from outside the cell to inside it
Each activates adenylatr Cyclase

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26
Q

Signal amplification and total products
Hydrophilic messenger

A
  1. One messenger binds to the receptor = 1
  2. Several G proteins are activated =10
  3. Each G protein activated adenylatr cyclase =10
  4. Each adenylatr cyclase activates hundreds of camp mlc =5000 (enzyme is phosphodiesterase)
  5. Each camp activates a protein kinase = 5000
  6. Each protein kinase S phosphorylation hundreds of proteins =2500000
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27
Q

Secretion mechanism lipophilic vs hydrophilic

A

Lipophilic- diffusion
Hydrophilic - secretory cells

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28
Q

Transport of hydrophobic vs hydrophilic messengers in blood

A

Hydrophilic- dissolved
Hydrophobic- bound to carrier protein

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29
Q

Location of receptor
Hydrophobic vs hydrophilic messenger

A

Hydrophobic- cytosine or nucleus
Hydrophilic - plasma membrane/cell surface

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30
Q

Signal transduction mechanisms for hydrophilic vs hydrophobic cells

A

Hydrophilic- open/close ion
- activate membrane bound enzymes
-G- proteins and second messenger systems
Hydrophobic-
Alter transcription of mRNA (alter protein synthesis

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31
Q

Relative time of onset response and duration of response for hydrophilic vs hydrophobic cells

A

Hydrophilic- fast time, short duration
Hydrophobic - slow time, long duration

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32
Q

Neuroendocrine signalling system

A

Combines neural and endocrine signalling using neurojormones ex. Norephinephrine and antidiuretic hormone
Secreted by neuron
Messenger- neurotransmitter
Pathway- bloodstream
Target cell- endocrine cells
Specificity- receptors in target endocrine cells
Time to onset- delayed
Duration of effect- longer

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33
Q

Secretory cells nervous vs endocrine system

A

Nervous- neuron
Endocrine- endocrine cell

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34
Q

Target cell nervous system vs endocrine system (signalling)

A

Nervous- neuron, muscle, gland
Endocrine- most cell types in the body

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35
Q

Messenger (chemical signalling) nervous vs endocrine

A

Nervous- neurotransmitter
Endocrine- hormone

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36
Q

Pathway of communication nervous vs endocrine signaling

A

Nervous- across synapse
Endocrine- via bloodstream

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37
Q

Classic endocrine tissues in the body

A

-hypothalamus
-anterior pituitary
-adrenal glands
-pancreas
Thyroid
Sex organs
Kidneys

But in fact most tissues have endocrine function

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38
Q

Fluid secretion in intestinal lumen

A

Maintaining normal fluid levels in the lumen is a matter of chloride and sodium secretion
Chloride and sodium pumps are regulated by a protein kinase (and camp)

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39
Q

Cholera toxin and life threatening diarrhea

A

Cholera toxin activates G protein for a prolonged period so signal doesn’t turn off
Causes efflux of Cl- and Na+ and loss of 20L/day of water

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40
Q

Cystic fibrosis and cholera

A

Cystic fibrosis might be evolutionary response to cholera toxin since it causes fluid retention

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41
Q

Neurons built for what

A
  • information flow
  • to signal specific target cells with a specific neurotransmitter
  • speed
  • to be excitatory or inhibitory
  • to diverge, converge and form networks
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42
Q

Myelinated vs non myelinated neuron speed

A

Myelinated- 6-120m/s (quicker)
Non myelinated- 0.5-2m/s (slower) very few of these

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43
Q

What age does remodelling of brains neural network begin

A

Age 10

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44
Q

Why might teenager be more impulsive

A

There’s a massive remodelling period and increase in myelination=increase in transmission speeds of neurons)

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45
Q

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

A

Produce myelin
Oligodendrocytes-
- Found in central nervous system cns
- spam multiple axons
Schwann cells
- do not spam multiple axons
- found in PNS

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46
Q

Astrocytes

A

Stellate (starlike) morphology
Very important for communication
Have 5 key functions

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47
Q

5 key functions of Astrocytes

A

1- coordinates overall function of the blood and brain barrier and provides nutrients to feed neurons
2- coordinates function of the brain network (epithelium)
3- coordinates function at the nodes of ranvier
4- participates in/forms tripartite synapses with neurons
5- serve as super hubs for neural network via syncardium formation and calcium signalling (propagated from Astrocyte to astrocyte by gap junctions)

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48
Q

Microglia

A

Mobile, macrophage like immune cells

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49
Q

Ependymal cells

A

Line ventricles to form a Barrier
Produce cerebrospinal fluid

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50
Q

The blood brain barrier

A

Very tight control over what gets through to the brain
(Remember neurons are meant to be very long lived and usually don’t regenerate)
- very good at protection against most bacteria and toxins

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51
Q

What gets through BBB

A

Mostly very small lipid soluble compounds (fatty acids)
Caffeine
Alcohol
Glucose by specific glucose transporter GLUT1(not insulin sensitive)

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52
Q

Phineas Gage

A

(1823-1860)
Most of his left frontal lobe was destroyed in accident with tamping iron that went through his skull
He recovered but had a completely different personality
Early evidence that different areas of our brain network to form our personality

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53
Q

emergent properties of the brain examples

A

Personality, rational decision making, emotion processing

54
Q

Imaging techniques for the brain

A

Provide insight to how our brain is organized
PET scans
FMRIs

55
Q

PET scan

A

Positron emission tomography
Tracks glucose uptake by injecting glucose tracer in bloodstream and using gamma rays to detect which brain regions consume most glucose (active brain cells have more glucose uptake) these will light up

56
Q

FMRI

A

Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Tracks blood flow (oxygenated blood vs deoxygenated blood) by hemoglobin’s magnetic properties
Active regions of brain get greater oxygen supply MRI picks up on these

57
Q

Neurotransmitter driven networks

A
  • norepinephrine
  • serotonin
  • acetylcholine
    -dopamine
58
Q

Norepinephrine network

A

Modulates
- attention
- arousal, memory, pain, learning, sleep wake, mood

59
Q

Phychostimulants

A

Use norepinephrine network
- methamphetamine
- Ritalin/aderall
- caffeine

60
Q

Nootropics

A

Smart drugs

61
Q

Serotonin network

A

Modulates
- pain, sleepwake cycle, emotion
Most antidepressants work by increasing serotonin levels
Low seretonin levels also associated with migranes

62
Q

Acetylcholine network

A

Modulates
Arousal, memory, learning, sensory information, sleepwake
Alzheimer’s disease patients have low acetylcholine levels

63
Q

How do Alzheimer’s medications work

A

Cholesterase inhibitors
Cholesterase is an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synapse

64
Q

Dopamine network

A

Modulates
Motor control
Reward pleasure centres
Parkinson’s is a disease where there’s a loss of dopamine network
Dopamine agonists are used to increase healthspan
Too much medication can cause gambling 🎰

65
Q

Where is dopamine signal processed into pleasure

A

Prefrontal cortex

66
Q

GABA

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter and turns dopamine signal off

67
Q

How do heroine and morphine work

A

By blocking the release of the enzyme that inhibits dopamine

68
Q

How does cocaine work

A

Blocks the reuptake (backflow) of dopamine

69
Q

PKU effects

A

People with pku experience drastic drops in serotonin and dopamine
Have a higher risk of depression and anxiety
Have to follow low protein/phenothalanine diet

70
Q

Hormones of posterior pituitary

A

Oxytocin (OC)
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
These hormones are made in hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary

71
Q

Oxytocin

A

Uterine contraction
Milk ejection
Positive mood
Social cognition and behaviour
Has calming effect on the mother
Low levels associated with autism

72
Q

Antidiuretic hormone

A

Retention of fluid by kidneys
Plays important role in blood pressure regulation
Increased ADH release with heart failure, leads to water retention and increased release in respiratory to severe blood loss or dehydration

73
Q

Hormones of the anterior pituitary

A

See notes man
But like growth hormone, thyroid hormone, follicle stimulating hormone and prolactin inhibiting hormone as examples

74
Q

Neurotransmitters vs neurohormones

A

Neurotransmitters- chemical messengers released by neurons that transmit signals to adjacent cells typically within the nervous system act as synapses, the junctions between nerve cells and their target, the cells, neuron, muscle, or other gland

Neurohormones- neurotransmitters that instead of acting as synapses are released into the bloodstream by neurons once in the bloodstream, they travel to distant cells or organs, where they exert their affects in this way neurohormones act more broadly on the body

75
Q

The local support and defence system

A

Consists of the nonspecific defenses, and the specific defences 

76
Q

Nonspecific defenses

A

Natural not learned through experience, also known as innate immune system includes the first and second line of defence 

77
Q

First line of defence

A

Nonspecific, physical and chemical surface barriers examples tears wash away irritating substances skin is a physical barrier saliva acid in the stomach bladder. 

78
Q

 Second line of defence 

A

Non-specific, internal cellular and chemical defence includes internal resident cells, proteins, inflammation, and fever, identifies foreign non-self matter, but isn’t specific and doesn’t develop a memory 

79
Q

Specific defence

A

Aka the adaptive immune system
Activated if pathogen survives specific defences
Includes the third line of defence

80
Q

Third line of defence

A

Immune response

81
Q

Defensive cells examples and functions

A

From second line of defence
Examples- phagocytize cells such as neutrophils and macrophages, eosinophils, natural killer cells
Function: engulf invading organisms, kill parasites 🦠

82
Q

Macrophage

A

Phagocyte
engulfs bacterium

83
Q

Natural killer cells

A

Part of second line of defence defensive cells
Constantly circulate and patrol for non self
Target cancer cells
Release perforin and proteins to destroy cells

84
Q

Phagocytes

A

Part of second line of defence defensive cells
Neutrophils- first on scene, consume bacteria
Macrophages- consume almost anything

85
Q

Eosinophils

A

Part of second line of defence Discharge enzymes that digest target

86
Q

Defensive proteins

A

Part of second line of defence Interferons
Complement system
Function: slow the spread of viruses in the body
Stimulates histamine release, promotes/kills bacteria, enhances inflammation

87
Q

Inflammation

A

Part of second line of defence
Widening of blood vessels and increased capillary permeability leading to redness, heat, swelling and pain

88
Q

Fever

A

Part of second line of defence
Abnormally high body temperature that slows growth of bacteria, speeds up body defences

89
Q

Complement system

A

Protein based defence
Part of second line of defence
20+ proteins synthesized,
mainly in the liver
released in inactive form
normally deactivated by native proteins in the blood and surface of the body zone.
Enhances the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damage cells from body
promotes inflammation
and attacks the pathogens cell membrane

90
Q

Parenchyma cells

A
  • functional portion of tissue(gland/organ)
    -serve a purpose related to that cell
    -most prominent in terms of mass
    Ex. Muscle - myocyte
91
Q

Parenchyma cell for liver, skeletal muscle, heart, brain

A

Liver- hepaticyte
Muscle- myocyte
Heart- cardio myocyte
Brain- neurons

92
Q

Stromal cells

A

Aka non parenchyma cells
Support cells
Like a framework- support the parenchyma cells forming the LSDS through physical support and structure
Ex. Astrocytes- support neural functions, BBB
Cells of lymphoid origin - Tcells
Gap junctions- communicate between parenchyma cells

Often more branches in nature for structural support

93
Q

LSDS

A

Local support and defence system
Does more than just defend against invading microbes
It’s always on
View it as watching and waiting for invaders
Has 3 main functions

94
Q

Functions of LSDS

A

1) Local tissue damage by processes that are not due to infectious pathogens
2) normal tissue turnover: cell death, tissue repair, regeneration due to wound healing
3) looks out for appearance of transformed cell poplulations

95
Q

Third line of defence

A

Aka the adaptive immune system
Activated in response to bacteria, viruses, cancer
Not born with it

96
Q

MHC

A

Major histocompatibility complex
- markers are proteins expressed on the surface of cells
- used in the recognition of pathogens (attack!)
But also to recognize self (support!)
Like ID
Displays both self and non self antigens

97
Q

Self MHC marker

A

Labels the body as self or friend (support)

98
Q

Antigen

A

A molecule often in the surface of a pathogen that the immune system recognizes as a specific foe (ATTACK!)
Like a tag that says I’m a bad guy

99
Q

Steps in the third line of defence

A

Step 1- threat
- an invader enters body (antigen)
Step 2- detection
- a macrophage encounters, engulfs and digests the invader
- macrophage places an antigen on its surface to identify invader
Step 3 - alert
- the macrophage presents the antigen to a helper T cell and secretes a chemical which activates helper T cell
Step 4 - antibody and cell mediated response

100
Q

What set of signals activate helper T cells

A

Involves
1. Recognition
2. Verification (just to be sure it’s responding to non self

101
Q

Cell mediated response

A

Final step of the third line of defence
Activated by effector T cells
Effector cytotoxic T cells target and kill infected cells by chemical means such as perforation
Memory T cells are stored for continued surveillance

102
Q

Antibody based immunity

A

B cell route of attack
Effector helper T cells activate naive B cells

Cells divide to effector cytotoxic B cells which secrete antibodies!
Memory Bcells are stored

103
Q

Antibodies

A

Neutralize foreign proteins (toxins)
Trigger release of more complement
Attract more macrophages
Attack foreign antigens wherever they find them
But B cells themselves don’t engage

104
Q

Types of memory cells

A
  1. Memory helper T cells
  2. Memory cytotoxic Tcells
  3. Memory B cells
105
Q

Where are memory cells stored

A

Bone marrow and thymus

106
Q

How do memory cells help for future attack

A

Provide quicker more robust response in subsequent encounters

107
Q

T suppressor cells

A

Provide negative feedback
Suppress activation of the immune system, particularly production of helper T cells
This is important in allowing tolerance to self antigens

108
Q

Too little vs too much T suppressor response

A

Too little = autoimmune disease m, allergies, IBS
Too much= increased incidence of infectious disease

109
Q

3components of cardiovascular system

A

Heart- muscle pump
Blood vessels - conduits for blood flow
Blood- fluid that circulates through the body and Carrie’s materials between cells

110
Q

Affiliated tissues with cardiovascular system

A

MANY
Lymph, cerebrospinal fluid. Extracellular fluid
Kidney, lungs
Spleen, thymus tonsils bone marrow etc

111
Q

Cardiovascular + lymphatic

A

= circulatory system

112
Q

Examples of cardiovascular disease

A

Coronary artery disease
Stroke
Heart attack (myocardial infarction)
Heart failure
Hupertension
Diabetes

113
Q

Blood vessels

A

Conduit blood in continuous loops
Veins
Venues
Capillaries
Arterioles
Arteries

114
Q

Pathway of blood through the heart

A

Deoxygenated blood comes from veins in body to inferior vena cava, right atrium, right AV valve, right ventricle, right semilunar/pulmonary valve, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries (one for each lung), pulmonary arterioles, capillaries where has exchange occurs then oxygenated blood goes to pulmonary ventless, then pulmonary veins, left atrium, left av valve, left ventricle, left semilunar valve/aortic valve, aorta, arteries and arterioles etc.

115
Q

Main site of Blood Pressure regulation

A

Arterioles
Since lots of innervation to control muscle control

116
Q

Capillaries

A

Blood vessel
No muscle, no control over tiny diameter, no ability to withstand high pressure, thin walled, movement of fluids is maximized here
Low velocity high surface area perfect for exchange of nutrients gases waste

117
Q

Arteries

A

Carry blood away from heart
Thick muscular walls designed to handle high pressures

118
Q

Main site of lymphocytes

A

Venules
(White blood cells) crossing from blood to lymph nodes

119
Q

Veins

A

Blood vessel
Carry blood to heart
Thin walled, fairly muscular for easy expansion and recoiling

120
Q

Dyslipidemia

A

Plaque/LDL cholesterol build up
Normal arteries are open, allow for efficient blood flow but not here

121
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

Consistent build up of LDL cholesterol/plaque

122
Q

Cardiac output

A

Amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute
Product of heart rate x stroke volume

123
Q

Resting blood flow cardiac output

A

5L/min

124
Q

Exercise blood flow/cardiac output

A

25L/min and most goes to skeletal muscles

125
Q

How do veins move blood against gravity

A

Pressure gradient between left and right side of the heart
Facilitated by:
Valves (prevent blood flowing backwards)
- contracting skeletal muscle
- expansion of thoracic cavity during breathing

126
Q

Varicose veins

A

One way valves malfunction
Allow backwards flow of blood and pooling
Generally occurred is in superficial veins of thigh and calf

127
Q

Saphenpus vein

A

Longest vein in the body

128
Q

Myocardium

A

Cardiac muscle tissue

129
Q

What makes cardiac muscle tissue different from skeletal muscle?

A

Neural input- autonomic/involuntary
Neural conduction- gap junctions, very fast, contract as a unit
Metabolism- very high oxidative capacity
- lots of miochindria (35%) vs 5% in skeletal muscle
- fatigue resistant!

130
Q

Lub sound

A

Generated by the closing of the AV valves as the blood goes from the atriums to ventricles

131
Q

Dub sound

A

Closing of the semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic valves- connecting ventricle to artery) makes dub sound

BIOL1080 (3 decks)

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