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BIOL1080 > Lectures 13-19 Final Exam > Flashcards

Lectures 13-19 Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Contraction

A

Systole
Force blood into places

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2
Q

Systole

A

Systolic blood pressure
Max pressure
Top number
(<120 in healthy individuals)
During contraction period, when ventricles contract sending blood to arteries

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3
Q

Contraction of atria

A

Aka atrial systole
Force blood into ventricles

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4
Q

Contraction of ventricles

A

Aka ventricular systole
Right ventricles force blood into pulmonary trunk
Left ventricles force blood into aorta

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5
Q

Relaxation

A

Diastole

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6
Q

Diastole

A

Diastolic blood pressure
(Bottom number)
Min pressure
When heart relaxes between beats
<80 in healthy individuals
Not zero due to recoil of arterial walls

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7
Q

Rest

A

Phase where atria and ventricles are relaxed and fill passively

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8
Q

After load

A

Diastolic arterial pressure - the pressure against which the heart muscle must work to eject blood during systole

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9
Q

Neural and endocrine signals control

A

Strength and rate of contraction

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10
Q

Sympathetic innervation

A

Norepinephrine
Increases hr

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11
Q

Parasympathetic innervation

A

Acetylcholine
Decreases/lowers hr

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12
Q

Epinephrine

A

Increases strength of each contraction

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13
Q

Cardiac output during excercise

A

Increases from 5-25L/min
(40L in elite athletes)

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14
Q

What propagates electric signal

A

Nodes
Nerves
Intercalated disks

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15
Q

Nodes

A

SA(sinoatrial) node - (hearts natural pacemaker: electrical impulses propagated here

AV atrioventrilicar node

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16
Q

Nerves

A

Bundle of His
Bundle of branches
Purkinge fibres

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17
Q

Intercalated disks

A

Type of gap junction specific to heart
Cardiac muscle made up of cardiomyocutes connected by intercallaged disks that work together as a single functional organ
Allow our heart to beat as one

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18
Q

Examples of miscommunication

A

Usually results in some kind of arrhythmia
- abnormal sinoatrial node firing (tachycardi) bradycardia
Blocks
Fibrillations

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19
Q

Abnormal sinoatrial node firing

A

Type of disruption in signalling
Tachychardia -fast >100bpm resting
Bradycardia slow <60bpm

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20
Q

Blocks

A

Ex at av node
Can slow down or prevent signal propagation from atria to ventricles
Ventricles can conduct independently (bundles of his 40bpm)

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21
Q

Fibrillations

A

More serious
Occurring when cells depolarize independently
A-fib and v-fib

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22
Q

A-fib

A

Atrial fibrillation
A quivering or irregular heart beat

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23
Q

V-fib

A

Most serious cardiac rhythm disturbance

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24
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

Narrowing of arteries due to calcified fatty deposits (plaque) and thickening of the wall
Triggered by damage of arterial wall
Can lead to heart attack or stroke

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25
Q

Coronary artery diseas

A

Atherosclerosis in the arteries of heart muscle

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26
Q

Factors influencing risk of atherosclerosis

A
  • elevated lipids, hupertension, inflammation, medications (c-recepive protein)
    -diet (sodium potassium saturated and trans fats)
  • physical inactivity,smoking, obesity and diabetes
  • age and genetics
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27
Q

Treating coronary artery blockages

A

Angioplasty
Bypass surgery

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28
Q

Angioplasty

A

Catheter balloon threaded into artery in blocked area
Balloon is inflated and plaque is pushed and held by a stent to artery walls

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29
Q

Bypass surgery

A
  • vein taken from arm or leg and one end attached to above blockage and other to below
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30
Q

How does the heart respond to hypertrophy

A

Enlargement of the heart
(A sign of being overworked) ex athletes heart
Appropriate adaptations

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31
Q

Heart enlargement endurance athletes

A

Increase LV chamber

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32
Q

Enlargement of the heart lifters

A

Increase in LV wall and septum thickness(to overcome after load)

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33
Q

When is enlargement of the heart a bad case

A

Causes high blood pressure and narrowing of aortic valve
Heart mud work harder to overcome this

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34
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

Norepinephrine and epinephrine bind to Alpha receptors located on arteries
This causes arteries to constrict
This increases blood pressure
Ex. During excercise

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35
Q

Vasodilation

A

Blood vessels in skeletal muscle lack alpha receptors
Norepinephrine and epinephrine bind to them in arteries of skeletal muscle
This dilates vessels of skeletal muscle so they can receive blood flow (also during excercise)

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36
Q

Does blood pressure increase dramatically during exercise?

A

No
Not really
Distribution of blood does not increase proportionally
Blood flow is diverted where it is needed - ie the working muscles
Constriction of vessels to the gut and kidneys decreases blood flow to these organs

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37
Q

Does blood pressure increase a lot during resistance training?

A

Yes tons
Increase it to up to 345/245 mmHg
Bc holding breath increases intratkoratic pressure during lift
-temporarily raises presser and slows heart rate

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38
Q

Valsava maneuver

A

Increased intrathoracatic pressure during a lift due to holding breath

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39
Q

The gastrointestinal tract

A

Represents a vast body surface area that is exposed to the external environment
Sees food and to I. Substances and I fectious agents

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40
Q

Unique mechanisms to deal with infections and toxic substances

A

(Sense and expel notorious substances) ex Vomit, diarrhea
Specialized populations of T cells localized in the intestinal mucosa

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41
Q

GI sphincters in order

A

Upper esophageal sphincter
Lower esophageal sphincter
Pyloric sphincter
Ilocecal valve
Anal sphincter

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42
Q

How long is gi tract

A

28 ft

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43
Q

How large is luminal surface area and why

A

200-400m^2
Due to villi increased surface area for nutrient absorption

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44
Q

Transit time for ingested meal

A

Highly variable
30-80hr
5-8hr in stomach and small intestine
Rest of time in colon

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45
Q

Gut micro biome

A

Bacteria etc.
protects against pathogenic microbes that enter/reside in the tract

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46
Q

Intristic nervous system

A

Aka enteric nervous system can control and coordinate function gi
Opening and closing sphincters

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47
Q

Four basic processes involved in digestion

A

Motility - peristalsis
Secretion
- saliva, mucous
- antibodies
- digestive enzymes
- bile
- bicarbonate
Digestion
Absorption
-water
-nutrients

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48
Q

Cephalon phase of digestion

A

chemical and mechanical digestion begin in the mouth)
Chewing
Saliva secretions in response to sight smell taste (senses)
Saliva secretion by sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

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49
Q

Saliva function

A

Softens and lubricates food
Provides enzymes: amylase and some lipase (but no protein digestion)

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50
Q

Gastric phase of digestion and absorption

A

(Stomach)
Secretory cells of the gastric mucosa- note the influence of the parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest) increases intestinal and glad activity and relaxes sphincter muscles in the gi tract
Note : digestion of protein and fat but not carbohydrates in stomach

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51
Q

Main contributor of digestive enzymes

A

Pancreas

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52
Q

Enzymes and pancreas
How are they released ??

A

Enzymes are released from pancreas in inactive form ex. Trypsinogen
Activated in small intestine by enterkinase in brush border of duodenum to form trypsin (for protein digestion

53
Q

Bile
Produced? Stored? Used for?

A

Produced in liver
Stored in Gallbladder
Used for fat digestion

54
Q

Absorption in small intestine

A

Small intestinal mucosa
Villi increase surface area to promote nutrient absorption

55
Q

Bicarbonate

A

From the cells in the intestinal epithelium
Secreted by pancreas
Protects intestinal mucosal barrier

56
Q

Digestive enzymes organ of secretion

A

Secreted by pancreas

57
Q

What is secreted into the lumen of the small intestine once the pyloric sphincter opens and food enters the duodenum

A

Bicarbonate
Digestive enzymes
and bile acids

58
Q

Maltose

A

2 glucose mlc

59
Q

Sucrose

A

Fructose + glucose

60
Q

Lactose

A

Galactose + glucose

61
Q

Starch

A

Chain of glucose

62
Q

Where do enzymes act on carbohydrate molecules

A

The brush border breaking them down into their polymers.
They can then be absorbed by the villi into the bloodstream via capillaries 

63
Q

 Why do coeliac disease people seem lactose intolerant

A

 Usually a deficiency in lactase causes lactose intolerance in the case of celiac, villi flatten, and there’s less absorption of lactose, some symptoms of lactose intolerant with gluten free diet. This will resolve. 

64
Q

Protein digestion 

A

 Begins in the stomach, strong acidic environment pepsin stomach acid breaks polypeptides into smaller fragments by breaking the peptide bonds
epithelial cells secrete peptidase to break down larger peptides into an individual amino acids.
Amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream and transported throughout the body in order to produce energy in liver or proteins synthesis

65
Q

Lipid digestion 

A

 Begins in the mouth, proceed in the stomach gastric lipase in stomach breaks down triglycerides. It continues to be digested in the small intestine through fat emulsification, which is facilitated by bile salts that break down large fat globules lipase also helps

66
Q

 Emulsifying fat 

A

Making fat soluble with bile

when you have large, lipid globule that is being broken down into smaller globules, facilitated by bile salts.

chyme moves into small intestine.
Bile is released by gallbladder


67
Q

Amphipatic

A

Hydrophilic and Lipophilic
Ex bile salts

68
Q

Micelles

A

 Rings of phospholipids
key role = help your body absorb different vitamins (ADEK) fat soluble

69
Q

 lipid absorption and transport

A

Absorbed as fatty acids and mono glycerides by brush wall,
they are then reassembled as triglycerides after brush wall, and packed as chylomicrons 

70
Q

Chylomicrons

A

Type of Lipo protein molecule that helps to transport triglycerides and other lipids and proteins
too large to cross capillary wall/too large for bloodstream
first absorbed in lymphatic system will re-enter circulation via thoracic duct near the heart

71
Q

How are chylomicrons absorbed

A

First absorbed in lymphatic system since too big for blood stream, then they re-enter circulation via thoracic duct near the heart 

72
Q

What comes from ileum? (ileocal valve

A

Ileum chyme
Any unabsorbed nutrients
Hormones and chemical messengers
Soluble fibre
Insoluble fibre
Microbes(Probiotic and other) bacteria
Cellular debris
Excretion products from liver

73
Q

What happens in the large intestine? (Cecum and colon)

A

Absorption of water and simple ions(potassium, magnesium, and calcium.)
resident microbes digest and absorb pre-biotics in a process called fermentation,
resident microbes produce some vitamins, (vitamin K some B vitamins) as a byproduct of their metabolism.
4. newly arriving live microbes, probiotic and others seek to get a foothold in the microbio ecosystem and multiply. 

74
Q

Fermentation

A

Process where resident microbes of the large intestine, absorb prebiotics producing short, chain fatty acids 

75
Q

 What motivates you to eat 

A

Hedonic, hunger, and homeostatic hunger 

76
Q

Hedonic, hunger 

A

The drive to eat to obtain pleasure in the absence of an energy deficit

77
Q

Homeostatic, hunger 

A

Increased motivation to eat, following depletion of energy stores

78
Q

Energy 

A

The capacity to do work 

79
Q

ATP

A

Adenosine triphosphate
Medium of energy exchange, energy currency of cell

80
Q

 What generates most of ATP

A

Glucose and fatty acid metabolism. (There’s relatively little from amino acids)
ETC
some is generated by glycolysis and Krebs cycle. 

81
Q

reducing equivalents

A

NADH and FADH2
Products of glycolysis, beta oxidation and Krebs cycle

82
Q

NADH and FADH

A

Supply protons (H+) and electrons (e-) to ETC

83
Q

Where is most of ATP made? 

A

Electron transport chain, ETC

84
Q

How can ATP be generated without O2? 

A

Phosphocreatine degradation
9-10 seconds worth
Phosphate creatine decreases quickly in the onset of exercise, like sprinting depleting completely in 10 seconds 

85
Q

How is ATP rebuilt? 

A

By adding a phosphate to ADP 

86
Q

End product of glycolysis in anaerobic conditions 

A

Lactate some ATP 

87
Q

Glycolysis

A

Glucose —-> pyruvate

88
Q

Beta oxidation

A

Breakdown of fatty acids 

89
Q

Fat storage 

A

Mostly stored as triglycerides in our adipocytes 

90
Q

Carbohydrate storage breakdown, 

A

150g (approx) - as glycogen in liver (high concentration, less mass)
350g (approx) -as glycogen in muscle (most amnt, low concentration)
30g - glucose in blood

91
Q

Protein storage 

A

Protein Represents a large potential energy source it is protected,
but will be used in starvation or caloric restriction 40% of body mass is muscle 

92
Q

Pros and cons of carbohydrates as fuel 

A

Pros: can generate ATP slightly faster than fat used during exercise can also generate ATP anaerobically 

Cons: hold a lot of water is heavier and less energy dense than fat 

93
Q

Pros And cons of fat as fuel

A

Pros: Doesn’t hold water more than twice as energy dense as carbohydrate
Most abundant energy reserve
Cons:
 can’t provide energy anaerobically must have oxygen

94
Q

Absorptive state 

A

First 3 to 4 hours after a meal
Energy macronutrients are stored
Excess nutrients taken up will be stored Anabolism

95
Q

Where are glycogen carbohydrates stored in the absorptive state 

A

In the liver and muscle 

96
Q

Where are triglycerides, stored during absorptive state 

A

Stored in adipose, tissue, liver and muscle 

97
Q

What happens to excess calories in the form of glucose or amino acids during the absorptive state

A

They get converted to fat 

98
Q

Post absorptive state

A

Fasting
Stored macronutrients are mobilized for energy (catabolism)
Glucose is spared for nervous system

99
Q

Glucogenesis

A

Making glucose from non carbohydrate precursors
Occurs in liver but also in kidneys

100
Q

Normal fasting blood glucose levels

A

4-5.5 mmol/L (very narrow range)

101
Q

Fatty acid fasting levels

A

0.2–2 mmol/L

102
Q

Fasting hyperglycaemia vs fasting hypoglycaemia

A

Hyper= glucose >7mmol/L
Hypo= glucose < 3.5 mmol/L

103
Q

Why is blood glucose maintained so tightly? 

A

Many cells require a glucose example of neural tissue and kidney
Main osmotic, balance, optimal concentrations of electrolyte, a non-electrolyte are maintained
Hyperglycaemia can cause glycosylation of amino acids in kidneys, peripheral nerves and lines of eyes causing nonreversible damage 

104
Q

What secretes insulin when

A

Beta cells in the pancreas secrete insulin when blood glucose is elevated 

105
Q

What secretes glucagon and when?

A

Cells and pancreas secrete glucagon when blood glucose is low 

106
Q

Situations that challenge energy distribution system

A

Excercise, sprinting

107
Q

Prolonged low intensity, exercise fuel

A

Plasma, blood glucose and fatty acids muscle, triglycerides and glycogen 

108
Q

Moderate to high intensity, exercise fuel 

A

As you increase the intensity, there is an increase need to mobilize energy stores substrates within the muscle itself, muscle glycogen and triglycerides and some blood glucose and fatty acids 

109
Q

High intensity, exercise fuel 

A

Muscle glycogen is predominant fuel used during high intensity exercise

110
Q

SNP

A

single nucleotide polymorphisms
represents a difference in a single nucleotide
1 every 300 nucleotides
Major source that distinguishes one individual from another

111
Q

Most frequent source for polymorphic changes

A

SNPs
But not the only source for polymorphic changes

112
Q

Nutritional genomics

A

Lifestyle interacts with genes to influence health and athletic performance outcome/response
Different genotypes can influence the way your body metabolizes different nutrients and things
SNPs of different genotypes can improve and modify or impair performance

113
Q

Result of increase in inflammatory cytokines

A

Aging is associated with an increase in that
Contributes to various age related disorders (ex. Alzheimer’s, cardiovascular disease and arthritis)

114
Q

Interleukin-6

A

IL-6
An inflammatory cytokine
Plasma levels positively correlated with greater mortality
SNP in promoter is associated with increased IL-6 and mortality rate

115
Q

Polymorphism

A

A dna sequence variation common in the population

116
Q

Promoter

A

Region of the dna that initiates transcription of a particular gene

117
Q

How many times more frequent is mitochondrial DNA damage than nuclear genome

A

10X

118
Q

Mitochondrial dna damage cause

A

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)

119
Q

Reactive oxygen species

A

Highly reactive chemical species containing oxygen
Can lead to protein damage, nuclear dna damage which can lead to apoptosis which leads to aging
- peroxides
- superoxides
- hydroxyl radical
- singlet oxygen

120
Q

More damaged mitochondria —>

A

More reactive oxygen species

121
Q

DNA polymerase gamma:

A

Replicates and proof reads / repairs mitochondrial DNA

122
Q

What happens as you age

A

Accumulating mutations in mitochondria accelerate
Errors in replication become more frequent

123
Q

What can reduce the effects of aging

A

Excercise!! Can significantly reduce the effects of aging as seen in study where excercise resulted in 58% reduction of diabetes

124
Q

Enterkinase

A

Activates enzymes from pancreas at the brush border to their active forms

125
Q

Sinoatrial node

A

Hearts natural pacemaker
Electric signals are propagated here

126
Q

Small intestinal mucosa

A
  • lining of the small intestine
  • lined with intestinal epithelial cells
127
Q

Intestinal epithelial cells

A

Cells that line intestines and they are responsible for absorbing nutrients

128
Q

What happens as you increase exercise intensity in regards to fuel source 

A

As you increase exercise intensity, more fuel from muscles, such as glucose, glycogen, stored in muscles and fatty acids are utilized 

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