Midterm 2 Review Flashcards
how many bones in the human skeleton?
206
cranial vs post cranial
skull vs below the skull
appendicular vs axial
appendages vs skull/abdomen
joint
articulation between 2+ bone movements
— through tendons and ligaments
tendons
muscle attaching to bone
ligaments
bone attaching to bone
skull is made up of the…
cranium and mandible
sutures of the skull
fibrous joints that do not provide movement
coronal suture of the skull
horizontal
sagittal suture of the skull
vertical
jaw and teeth bones
maxilla
zygomatic
bones on the edge of the eye socket
nasal aperture bone
maxillae
vertebral column functions
supports upper body
protects the spinal cord
vertebral column bones
24 movable vertebrae
- 7 cervical
- 12 thoracic
- 5 lumbar
10 fused vertebrae
- 5 sacrum
- 5 coccyx
posterior vs anterior sacrum
- posterior = rough
- anterior = smooth, dish-like
how many ribs
12 ribs per side
- thicker head
- thinner sternal end (attaches to sternum)
shaft of the long bone
diaphysis
hand number of bones
54 bones
- 27 on each side
14 = phalanges
5 = metacarpals (palm)
8 = carpals
what makes up the pelvic basin
pelvic bones, sacrum, coccyx
– illium, ischium, pubis
bones of the knee joint
femur, patella, tibia
bones of the lower leg
patella, fibula, tibia
number of bones in the ankle and foot
52= 26 L and R
- 7 tarsals
- 5 metatarsals
- 14 phalanges
Bioarchaeologist
Team Leader: project direction
- Individual & populational histories w/ Unknown ID
- Past responses to social/environmental conditions
archaeological sites and dates
archaeology >100 years
Paleontology: > 10,000 BCE
osteobiography of bioarchaeologist
individual lived experience
what this means in their society
forensic anthropologist
Team Leader: medical examiner
— Forensic (legal) significance
— Decedent focus: ID
— Repatriation to family
Living: refugee child rights - 18 years
osteobiography of of forensic anthropologists
Identification, narrow profile
datum
permanent reference point for all vertical and horizontal neasuremnets taken at the site
USGS
US Geological Survey
GIS
Geographic information system
– pulls data together and layers different types of data
bagging and labeling for forensics
- Case # & site
- Bag #
- Brief description
- Provenience – grid unit or feature
- Date, Excavator
sampling types
- soil samples
- insect samples
- plant samples
- final photos
human biological sex estimation
M:F = 92%
- pelvic bone for best estimation
pelvic bone in female vs male
- Ventral arc – expansion of female pubic bone for childbirth
- Medical ischiopubic ramus – thick vs thin
- Subpubic cavity – concave for female vs convex for male
- Sciatic notch – wider for females
- Preauricular sulcus – wide groove for females
- Skull – ridge is more robust on male
- Supraorbital margin – sharper edge = female
- Mental eminence - small chin = female
- Nuchal crest
- Mastoid process
Chemical analysis of bones and teeth
C3 Plants (wheat) → wet, wooded environment
C4 Plants (corn) → open grassland, tropical savannas
Stable Isotopes: carbon and nitrogen
- Helped uncover migratory routes, trophic levels, and the geographic origin of migratory animals
- Used on land & ocean and have revolutionized how researchers study animal movement
Electron Spin Resonance
- used to date quartz, fossilized teeth, flint, limestone, and even eggshells
- Uses radiation to cause electrons to seperate from atoms, which changes the magnetic field at a predictable rate
Potassium-argon dating or K-AR dating
- radiometric dating method used in geochronology and archeology
— Based on the measurement of the product of the radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium (K) into argon (Ar) - Useful for dating very old specimens or closely associated rock layers
charcoal dating
- to separate charcoal from the sediment matrix; used tweezers or micro tweezers
- For large pieces of charcoal that are no covered in a lot of clay, you can use water flotation. Dry charcoal samples at temperatures less than 70C for 12-24 hours prior to shipping
wood dating
- use water flotation to separate wood fro sediment matrix
- For conserved wood, make sure to selected samples from a sectation that does not show any signs of insect activity or rot and has not been treated with preservatives or additives
bone and teeth dating
- Collect good cortical bone fragments from larger bones of the body, since there bone fragments preserve well
- Larger bones = femur, tibia, upper arm bone, skull plate, jaw
- Effective range: 500 to 50,000 years
absolute dating methods
*radiocarbon
— presented with before present (1950 AD)
2000 +/- 150 BP
Case Study: Chaco Canyon – Tree Ring Dating
- can be seen as a blend of relative and absolute dating methods
- Tree rings show where timber used for Cacho Canyon great houses timbers were from, how old the were, and how sources changed over time
(850-1250 AD)
index fossil
useful for dating and correlating the strata to which it is found
fossil
- preserved traces and remains of an organism that lived long ago
- about 10,000 years for fossilization
- Occurs only in sedimentary rocks & processes
- A process of mineralization, a replacement of organic material with non-organic compounds
- Requires a rapid burial process
Case Study: The Snowmastodon Project, CO
- Snowmass Village, Colorado (160 mi W o Denver)
- An example of rapid burial caused by an earthquake for fossilization
- Occurred during a waning glacial period 130,000 years ago (warming period between glaciations)
Mildred Trotter
- 1970s
- predict stature from 6 long bones rather than clavicle
- using anatomical skeletons and osteometric boards
- 5027 M/Fs from 18-30 years of age
predicting stature - regression line
- line of best fit between long bone lengths and stature
- stature - DV
- long bone -IV
formula for stature calculation
2.28 x femur length + 59.67 +/- 3.41 cm
examples of disease ID
- Arthritis: Joint destruction
— Osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis - Scoliosis: spinal unalignment
- Dental: anomalies or disease
antemortem injury details
- blunt edges
- callus (inflammation and healing)
- disorganized bone
Perimortem (around death)
- angled, sharp edges
- hinges: splintering of the bone
- no visible healing
- homogenous color
Postmortem (taphonomy)
- sharp edges
- flat right angles
- no healing
- fresh color at bone edges
taphomony
- Postmortem changes ot the body
- Distinguish natural changes from international human changes
- Forensic: rule out a crime
- Bioarch: avoid social misinterpreation
decomposition
stages through which the body progresses from the moment of death (fresh) to skeletonized in a given climate
postmortem interval
time between death and discovery
Forensic Anthropology Center (FAC)
– The Body Farm, U of Tennessee est. 1980
Taphonomic factors affecting decomposition
-Weathering
- Animal scavenging & gnawing
- Insects
- Plants
- Season, sunshine, shade
- Burial: soil, depth, covering
- Deposition: surface, water, burial
- Specific to climate
— Texas State U, Southern Illinois U
Austrailia, Canada
Epidemiological bioarchaeology
- the study of human remains from archeological contexts
- Assess the biological condition of populations and consequences for biological and cultural reproduction of the society
- Evolutioanry & population perspective on disease
Agriculture: good idea but with tradeoffs?
- Settled communities, shelter
- Decreased birth interval: population growth
- Access to variable skills, trade
- Single crop reliance: vermin, drought
– Food shortages - Increase in Nutritional deficiencies
– Decrease in stature, health
– Increase in fetal and maternal stress
– Increase childhood health stress: DEH (dental enamel)
– Increase death rate
– Increase in dental disease (carbs) - Increase population, density
– Increase infectious disease: zoonoticm parasitic
– Increase in social unrest: interpersonal, raids
Social Bioarchaeology
study of skeletal remains in an archaeological context
- Funerary archaeology + skeletal remains
*lived experiences marked on the body used to understand past lives and social processes
grave goods?
Status, wealth, identity, trade, inequality, ideology, ritual, social complexity, ethinicity
health: paleopathology, parasites ?
Disease, disability, care, treatment, sanitation, inequity, structural violence, oppression
Activity: muscle markers, joint disease?
Labor patterns, work intensity, inequality
Bone chemistry: isotopes, DNA?
Migration (people & bacteria), diet (subsistence, access, status, inequality), kinship, marriage patterns, colonialism
Migration & Identity at Mount Nebo, Joran (AD 491-640)
Hypothesis: Mt. Nebo was a cosmopolitan monastery shaped by diverse monastics
- Demographic analysis: age, biological sex
- Strontium isotopes: local or non-local?
- Landscape: monastic structures within an overnight journey (50 miles)
- Onomastics (name origins)
- epigraphy (ancient inscriptions): mosaics
Hardin Cemetery Disaster ~ Missouri, July 1993
MFI
County coroner: Dean Snow
- Organize volunteers: medical, funerary directors, equipment operators
- Search & recovery; boats
- Dry land: all-terrian vehicles
- Remains: 25 square miles
- Trees, fences
- Morgue: fairground with refrigerated trucks
DMORT
Disaster Mortuary Operation Response Teams
systematics
All activities involved in an evolutionary approach to understanding & determining the diversity & relationships of organisms, both present-day & extinct
taxonomy
grouping and naming organisms
- Traditional Linnaean classification, 1735
- Similar morphology, binomial nomenclature
taxonomy of humans
Species - Sapiens
Genus - Homo
Family - Hominids
Order - Primates
Class - Mammals
Phylum - Chordates
Kingdom - Animals
ancestral/primitive homologous traits
inherited traits shared with others
Ex/ all primates have 5 digits
derived/unique homologous traits
Diagnostic, unique characteristic
Ex/ adducted big toe of humans
phylogeny
patterns of relationships and the evolutionary history and relationships of a species/group of related species/taxa
mode of change (morphology)
- anagenesis
- cladogenesis
anagenesis
- Linear ~ Species 1 → Species 2
- Sum of microevolution
- Natural selection
- Adaptation → new species
Cladogenesis
- Isolated small group adapts to new environment - Species 1 → 1+ species (branching event)
tempo of change (speed)
- gradualism (Darwin)
- punctuated equilibrium
gradualism
- Slow, gradual
- No transitional fossils → gaps in fossil record
- species are arbitrary
- 1 species at any one time
punctuated equilibrium
- speciation/branching event (cladogenesis)
- Sudden environment shift
- Visible as new species → period of stasis
Fossil gaps are REAL
mosaic evolution according to darwin
different physiological systems/growth & development (LHT)
primitive dentition
- Honing Complex: upper canine and lower premolar
- Sectorial edges: self-sharpening
- *Upper canine fits into diastema → space between teeth that fit together
- Chimps = small canines, incisors — no diastema — short, parabolic arcade
gait cycle
How do we balance our weight on 2 limbs while standing & on 1 limb while walking?
End of the Mesozoic Era
(250-65 mya)
- Extinction of dinosaurs
- New niches and very small mammals radiate
Cenozoic Era
(65 mya)
- age of mammals
Miocene epoch
25-5 mya
- warming –> expansion of apes
- continents similar to today
- large ape feature emerge
early miocene
23-16 mya
- large body apes diverge from OW monkeys
Africa: Proconsul
Early Miocene: 23-16 mya
E. Africa: Kenya, uganda
Rainforests, woodlands
Dental ape
2.1.2.3
Y-5
Sexual dimorphic canines
Monkey pc
Arms = legs; arboreal
Long, flexible lumbar – but has coccyx: no tail
Facultative biped
Europe: Dryopithecus
Middle/Late Miocene (17-8 mya)
- Adaptive radiation
- Drying in Africa, global warming
- Land bridge: Europe (France, Spain, Germany, Greece) & Asia
Y-5 molar ~ Parallel tooth rows, large canines
Spain 2003:
- Vertebrae, ribs, hands, ribs
Ape: flat pelvis basin
- Long powerful arms
- Maintain erect posture
- Short, inflexible lumbar
- Posterior scapula
Asia: Sivapithecus
(India, Pakistan, China, Turkey)
- 15-8 mya
- Diversity increases
- Woodlands, grasslands
- Derived orangutan features
- Concave profile – orthognathous
- Projecting incisors
- Tall orbits
- Derived: large, heavy quadruped (70-150 lbs)
Gigantopithecus
- Late Miocene: 8 mya - 200,000 ya
- China, India, Pakistan
10’ — 800 lbs
4 mandibles
1500 teeth ~ thick enamel, jaws (bamboo?)
Oreopithecus bambolii
Italian, Tuscan swamps
- 8 million years ago & 50 individuals
- Small teeth = No diastema
- Brain: 400 cc
- Foot: splayed
- Lumbar curve
- Pelvis: short pubis; longer anterior inferior iliac – - spine
- bipedal?
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
(the Chad fossil)
- TM 266-01-060-1
- Chad, Central Africa – 2002
- Michel Brunet
- Toros-Menalla area (TM)
- West & North
- Date: 6.8-7 mya
- Lakeside forest → fish, elephants, grazers
Orrorin tugenensis
- BAR 1000’00
- Baringo Tugen Hills, Kenya – 2000
- Bridget Senut
- ‘original/millennium’
- Woodland, rivers
- Date: 5.8-6.1 mya
- 20 pieces — 5 individuals
- Bipedal: 3 proximal femurs
- Long femoral neck & inferior cortical thickness
- Dental: small molars and upper canine with partial honing complex
- Chad fossil a gorilla → orrorin oldest hominin
– Now more similar to Australopiths
Ardipithecus ramidus
- ARA-VP-6/500
- Tim White, 1994
- Aramis, Middle Awash, Ethiopia – 1992-95
- ‘Ardi’: “ground ape”, “root” Afar
- 50% female skeleton in limestone
- Date: 4.4-5.8 mya
- Forests & lakes
- 1900 fossils: 50+ individ., 60 mammal species → elephants, rhinos, horses, monkeys
- Small projecting face
- Brain = 300-350 cc
- Smaller canines, tip war
- No sectorial shearing
- Foramen magnum – anterior
- Biped? → divergent grasping large toe
- Pelvic bone: rectus femoris & anterior inferior iliac spine (aiis)
- Quadriceps flexion muscle
- Origin: ‘aiis’
- Insertion: tibial tuberosity
- Swings leg forward
- Contracts & straightens knee
- Aiis: robust
Early Australopiths in East Africa
- Date: ~4 mya
- Genus: Australopithecus (Au.) → Southern ape
- Bipedal
- Larger brain: 350-500 cc
- Large canine and larger body
- Diverse Habitat
- ~3 mya disperse to South Africa
Au. afarensis (LUCY)
- Southern ape from Afar
- Hadar, Ethiopia – Afar Triangle
- Don Johanson, ADU (1974)
- Knee joint
- Date: 3.6 - 3.0 mya
1974:
1. Oldest hominin
2. 40% complete skeleton
3. Bipedalism 1st – irrefutable biped
4. In Africa
PC (human/ape)
- 3.5-4’ tall – dimorphism
- Human-like features
- Pelvis → short, broad, dish-shape
- Robust anterior inferior iliac spine
- Large bicondylar angle → intermembral index ~ 85
- Wider knee joint, patella groove, adducted big toe, Short legs
Au. afarensis ~ Southern ape from Afar (NOT LUCY)
- Brain: ~ 350-500 cc
- Bell-shape (wide at base)
- Pronounced crests (Nuchal, sagittal crest) – heavy chewing
- Large canines
- Parallel arcade Central foramen magnum
- Now: 35 individuals
- Lake, forest, open woodland (generalist: variable adaptation)
Laetoli footprints, Tanzania
- Mary Leakey (1974-1979)
- 2 trails in volcanic ash, 1978
- Biped foot action → deep heel strike, toe-off
- Adducted big toe with NO grasping
- Dating: 3.6 mya
- Site G: 75’ long, 3 individuals
- Site A: 1.5 k from site, 1 individual
tool use in dikika, Ethiopia
- (McPheron et al 2010)
- Dating: 3.3 mya
- Evidence of meat consumption (defleshing marks)
- Femur percussion: marrow
tool use in gona, ethiopia
- Dating: ~2.6 mya
- Stone tool manufacture
- 2900+ cores, broken flakes, choppers, scrapers debitage
- Antelope bones (percussion, cuts)
tool use in lomekwi, Kenya
Dating: 3.3 mya
Chopper
South African Sites:
~3 mya adaptive radiation
- Quarry sites and limestone caves
- Breccia – sand, fossil, rock, lime
- Baboon sleeping sites
Biostratigraphy:
- Faunal sequence compared to East Africa
- South African fossils post date East African sites
Raymond Dart
- 1924
- African paleoanthropology begins here!!
- Australian anatomist, British trained
- University Withwaterstand, South Africa
- Chair Anatomy and Museum
- 1924 box of fossils” taung
- North Lime Co. quarry
- Dry open veld
- ‘Baboon’ skull?
Australopithecus africanus (African southern ape)
- Breccia endocast, face, mandible
- Dating: 2.5 mya (in 2015)
- ~400 cc → 440 cc (adult)
- Foramen magnum: more anterior
- Vertical forehead
- Deciduous +1m: 6 years?
- Small canines
- Parabolic arcade; no diastema
- ~3 years old (ape-like dental development) – 1987
Dart reports in Nature 1925
- Missing link in Africa
- No 2nd opinion, review
- Significance of name (names genus) → - “Australopithecus africanus” – African southern ape
Taung Controversy – 1925
- Dart’s credibility
- With modern baboon skulls → recent
- Wrong place (lack of fossil evidence)
- Brain first: piltdown
- No postcrania
- Age: ~ 6 years
Tough plants
- East Africa
- Bone: carbon isotopes
- Tough C4 plants, not hard nuts
- Low quality rough sedges or corm
- Little microwear from heavy chewing
- Dental calculus: Sedge phytoliths
termite rods
- Swaterkrans
- 85 bone splinters/horns – 13-19 cm long
- Scratches 50 mm from tip only
- Opening termite mounds
- Earliest evidence for insect consumption
Au. boisei OH 5
510 cc
- Dished, prognathic face
- Anterior foramen magnum
- Massive molars, small anterior teeth
Powerful chewing →
- Zygomatics: broad, flared
- Massive crests: large sagittal & nuchal
- Wide jaw
- Massive molars w/ thick enamel
The Leakey’s Big Break
1959
- Robust australopiths in East Africa
– OH 5: Zinjanthropus boisei (Zinj) → (ancient east Africa, patron: Boisei_
- Paranthropus boisei (splitters)
– Au. boisei (lumpers)
significance of leakey’s big break
- 1st E. African hominin found
- Chronometric (absolute dating) → 2.3-1.8 mya (K-Ar)
- Tools with bones – National Geographic Funding
Broom Variation: Au. robustus – 1938
- Broom at Kromdraai & Swartkrans caves (2.0-1.0 mya)
- Different sites = different genus
- More robust compared to Sts 5
- 500-550 cc
- Foramen magnum: biped
- Large crests
Heavy chewing complex - Broad face, zygomatics
- Large sagittal and nuchal crests
- Huge molars: grinding
- Extensive pitting, minor striations
- Tough grasses
- Brittle/hard foots: nuts and seeds
Robert Broom – 1926
- Scottish physician, reptile paleontologist
- Transvaal Museum, Pretoria, South Africa
—- Dynamites: Sterkfontein quarry
Adult braincase ~ 400-550 cc - Small canines, parallel arcade w No diastema
- Central foramen magnum
- PC from 600+ fossils: biped
- Dating: ~2 mya
- Dart vindicated, Nature 1926
archeological?
more than 100 years
sex estimation in humans
mastoid
mental entimene
nuchal crest
* not zygomatic
behavioral complexes unique to hominins
bipedalism and nonhoning chewing
the symphyseal face will become — with —-
more eroded and disorganized with age
the intermembral index
predicts patterns of locomotion
- ratio of forelimb and hindlimb
- humerus/radius and femus/tibia
axis of the cervical vertbrae
C2
key distinctions of bipedalism in chimpanzee
skull
pelvis
knee
spine
leg
toes
foot
determine sex through skull
mastoid process
sutra-orbital ridge
mental eminence
the sciatic notch is on…
pelvis
foramen magnum is positioned on the ——- to support bipedalism
inferior human skull
affiliated behavior
tactile comuncation which promotes friendly behavior for group communication
minimum time needed to form a fossil
10,000 year
carbon 14 dating is relative or absolute dating?
absolute
Piltdown man was proven to be a forgery by what method
fluorine dating
c4 vs c3
dry land and grass lands
vs
wetlands and wooded areas
carbon and nitrogen can be used for
geographic origin and diet
cayo santiago
research program used to stay macaques and studying social behaviors without predatory presence
macaques have
matrial structure – status is determined by the mother
