Midterm 1 Review Flashcards
Aristole
384-332 BCE
-Greek philosopher
-1st comparative anatomist
-Scala Naturae
Scala Naturae
order of nature by increasing complexity
–spontaneous generation
–static: fixity of species
First scientist to include humans as part of nature in their classification?
Linnaeus
Western World View of Middle Ages & Evidence
500-1500 CE
-Rome falls
-Biblical world view and decline of scientific thinking
-Evidence: genesis → agreeable and complete history
→ single origin: monogenesis
→ deluge: dispersal to variation
No prehistory
Rapid civilization after the fall
Bishop Ussher
“biblical begats”
— how Earth formed
Scientific Revolution: Renaissance 16th century Europe
Science: a framework for natural laws
- Copernicus → sun is the center of the universe
- Scientific method
- Recovery of classical texts
- Inventions → printing press, navigation
- Exploration
What led to the challenge of monogenesis and the acceptance of polygenesis?
- Exploration: New people/culture/artifact leads to the challenge of “monogenesis”
*polygenesis → many origins
Andreas Vesalius
1514-1564
– Belgian anatomist and physician
– Founder: modern anatomy
– Human dissections, comparative anatomy
– Student participation
– Modern medical text: “On the fabric of the human body based on dissection” 1543
Enlightenment 17-18 century
Science: rational; enlightened thinking of the human condition
The new religion; Geology, biology arise
Exploration led to…
- new plants, animals → natural historians
- Ethnographic, artifactual evidence of different cultures, people
- Public museum
- Industrialism
- Exploitation → Raw materials, non-Europeans
John Ray
1627-1705
- minister, zoologist, naturalist
- 1st classification: animals/plants
- species, genus, fossils
species classification
Reproductively isolated organisms
Specific ability to reproduce
Immunate
Genus classification
similar species that share general traits
fossils
formed at flood; ignorance of complete range of nature; no extinction
Carolus Linnaeus
1707-1778
- swedish naturalist
- systema naturae
- taxonomy
- immutable classification (unchanging)
- binomial standardization
-introduced humans to classification
Taxonomy
science of biological classification
- taxis: order, arrangement
- nomos: science, law
Binomial standardization
genus, species
- Latin names, italics
- introduced order, class
- humans are part of primates: homo sapiens
homo sapiens meaning
wise man
George Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
1707-1788
- keeper of king’s garden, paris
- founder: natural history museums
- challenges fixity
**all species change over time to survive: migration, environmental change
- No macroevolution (new species)
microevolution
chance inheritance; chance of receiving copy of allele
Jean-Batiste Lamarck
1744-1829
- Naturalist, 1st evolutionary biologist
- study of organism and their progressive change
- use-disuse theory
use-disuse theory
when certain organs become specially developed as a result of some environmental need, then that state of development is hereditary and can be passed on to progeny.
environmental change –>
activity change –> use/disuse a body part (enlarge/shrink) –> change in organism –> inherited
Lamarkianism
- use-disuse theory
- inherit acquired characteristics needed to survive in a particular environment
George Cuvie
1769-1832
- NHM Paris
- Anatomist
- Founder: paleontology
- catastrophism
catastrophism
Caused the earth’s features and extinction
– French stratum fossils
Large mammoths, dinosaurs, extinct during disasters
Migration and repopulation by nearby species
Sir Charles Lyell
1797-1875
Hutton, Scotland 1785
Oxford U
Friends with Darwin
Founder: geology
Uniformitarianism
Uniformitarianism
the theory that changes in the earth’s crust during geological history have resulted from the action of continuous and uniform processes.
Thomas Malthus
1766-1834
- clergyman, economist
- Founder: demography
- social conditions of overpopulated England
Demography
Overpopulated England
– Poverty, social conditions
Essay of Principles of population
- Constant completion of food
- Who survives/ advantageous characteristic
Charles Darwin
- Wealthy family, naturalist
- Edinburgh University: medicine
- Lamarckian principles: transmutation
- Christs College, Cambridge: theology
- Joins HMS Beagle: naturalist
Darwin Theories
Galapagos Islands
Finch: beaks differed by island and habitat
Farmers: selective breedings (artifical selection)
Alfred Russel Wallace
1823-1913
- poor, little education → naturalist
- Expeditions: Amazon, SE Asia 1854
- Faunal discontinuity Asia/Australia
- 1855 paper: New species due to envt, adapt and survive
- Mathlthus connection
Mathlthus connection
- Evolution driven by completition and natural selection
- Species not fixed
1858: on the tendency of varieties to depart indefinitely from the original type - Sends to Darwin for advice
- Joint presentation w wallace
1859: Darwin quickly publishes On the origin of species
Natural selection acts upon…
- Individual variation
- Population changes, not the individual - Heritability
- Differential reproductive success in a specific environment
**Those better adapted to survive, reproduce, and leave more offspring who will also survive and reproduce (do not grow new traits)
Elephant natural selection example
community of elephants with long and short trunks – those with longer trunks survive and reproduce because they can reach more food; so the next generations have more long trunks
polygenic
one phenotypic trait that is affected by two or more genes
Ex/ hair color, height, weight
pleiotrophy
single gene can have multiple effects
Gregor Mendel
- St. Thomas’ Abbey, Brno
- Brno Sheep Breeders Society
– How to increase wool production? - Inbreeding reduced quality
- Anomalies produced by normal sheep and villagers
- Generations skipped
- Needs selection for good wool
Law of segregation
- traits in pairs of units/genes
- 1 unit per parent
- units separate in sex cell division (meiosis)
- units reunite in fertilization
3 conclusions from Mendelian pea plants
- law of segregation
- law of independent assortment
- mendelian traits
– D vs R, homo vs hetero
Law of independent assortment
traits is inherited independently from 2 different chromosomes
Mendelian Traits
- discrete, discontinuous
- 15,000+ traits – polydactyly, free-hanging ear lobes
- carrier
mendelian vs polygenic
- 1 gene locus vs more than 1 gene locus
- discontinuous vs continuous
- fixed vs environment?
- frequencies vs statistics
- loci identified vs undefined
sex-linked traits: x or y
X chromosomes most frequent
– 154,000,000 base pairs, 1100+ genes
Y linked are rare (smaller chromosomes)
– 57,000,000 bp, 250 genes
Males: Any X-linked or Y-linked trait expressed
Females: X-linked trait
**Heterozygous females are carriers
Modern Evolutionary Synthesis
- Production & shuffling of variation
— Genetics-inherited differences - Natural selection acts on variation
Functions of DNA
- store information
- replication
– pass genetic info through cell division - protein synthesis
2 cell types
- autosomes or somatic or body cells
- gamete
autosomes
body cells from tissue
- repair and growth function
gamete
- reproduction
- 1 set of chromsomes of teach type
- 1n (23 chromosomes)
- sperm: x & y
- egg: x only
mitosis
Replicated DNA splits into 2 cells, with a replica of each chromatid
– Produces new somatic/autosome cells
– 2 identical new somatic daughter cells (23 chromosome pairs)
– 46 chromosomes
meiosis
reproduces new sex cells (gametes) in testes and ovaries
– 1N sperm and 1N egg = 2N zygote
– 23 chromosomes
DNA transcribed in the nucleus to mRNA →
translated in the cytoplasm by the ribosome into protein amino acids
transcription
- Small section of DNA strand separates the exposed gene
- Free RNA ribonucleotides attracted
- Complementary stand mRNA
- mRNA breaks away, DNA strand rebounds
- Moves out of nucleus into cytoplasm for ribosome to attach to
translation
- Translates that code to create proteins from codons of amino acids chains
- tRNA (transfer RNA) delivers anticodon (opposite of codon)
- tRNA docks, amino acids bond and stack to form a protein
- STOP codon
- Releases protein chain
Modern Evolutionary Synthesis (Neo-Darwinism)
- Production and shuffling of variation
– Genetics (Mendel’s rediscovered work)
– Inherited differences by DNA (1953) on chromosomes - Natural selection acts on variation
Filter for evolution (Darwin, Wallace)
deme
local reproductive population
gene pool
genetic material in the deme
Micro VS Macro Evolutionary Change
Micro: short term; allele frequencies change
Macro: long term; species change
what can cause allele frequencies to change?
- mutation
- gene flow
- genetic drift
- sexual selection
Spontaneous mutation
- meiosis cell division
- sister chromatids swap genes; unequal swapping
induced mutation
exposure to toxins/radiation (mutagens)
CFTR gene mutation
- For protein: cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator
– Common deletion mutation: CFTRdeltaF508 - F= amino acid phentylalanine at position 508
sickle cell gene mutation
Nonsynonymous point mutation of Hemoglobin-beta gene
— Creates a new amino acid
— Adenine replaces thymine
sickle cell anemia
- Poor RBC form (abn0rmal hemoglobin)
– Catch on capillaries - Lack of hemoglobin that carries oxygen to body tissues
– Low, blocked blood oxygen
– Joint pain, swelling; tiredness
– Anemia, stroke, organ failure, Death
Sickled RBC: 10 days. VS Normal RBC: 120 days - autosomal recessive
balanced polymorphism
2+ phenotypes maintained for a specific gene
heterozygote advantage for sickle cell disease
SS: less malaria deaths, but death to sickle cell
SA: survivors = poor host and small RBC
AA: more malaria deaths
gene flow
genetic exchange between groups –> migration and travel increase diversity
- permanent or temporary
genetic drift
random change of alleles
- bottleneck effect
- founder effect
bottleneck effect
restriction of all the genes continuing to future generations
– catastrophe eliminates genes
founder effect
a small subset of a large group becomes reproductively isolated from gene pool (Not the parent pool)
– colonization
Huntington’s Disease
- 1st disease-associated gene mapped into chromosome
- Appears >40 years
– Stays in the gene pool; due its incubation period being later in life - Autosomal dominant → 50% risk
Protein: huntingtin
>35 repeats of glutamine=mHTT (mutatnt HTT for huntingtons disease)
sexual selection
- Some M and some F more reproductively successful
- Completion between males for female access
- Females tries to chose the best mate
- Parental investment
- Sexual dimorphism
- Size, shape, color in M:F
assertive mating (non-random)
Individuals preferentially mate with other who exhibit certain triats
– Founder effect
– Reduced gene flow
- Birth order, contracts, status, faith, wealth,
***OUTCOME = less genetic variability
disassortative mating (random)
Individuals preferentially mate with nonsimilar individuals
- Outside local gene pool (exogamy) → increased gene flow
*** OUTCOME = increased genetic variability
Hardy-Weinberg Law of Genetic Equilibrium
p + q = 1
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
p = D
q = R
homeostasis controller of the brain
hypothalamus
plasticity
The ability of an organism to positively respond to environmental stress
(behavior, physiology, morphology)
acclimatization
an organism’s nongenetic way of coping with a stressor
- life-saving response
adaptation
natural selection for long-term evolutionary change
– least reversible
heat stress acclimatization
- homeothermic
- vasodilation
- sweating
cold stress acclimatization
- vasoconstriction
- frost bite
- shivering
- BMR
high altitude stress acclimatization
- increased pulmonary capacity
- increased RBC production
- Vasodilation
- Simulated
The smaller the ratio of surface area (skin) to body mass…
the more the body will retain heat
**Bergmann and Allen’s Rule
bigger brain of humans vs chimps =
obstetric issues
– Mother and infant deaths
– Decreased population
– Decreased reproductive success
how to birth a bigger brain?
- longer fetal period and wider pelvic inlet
- same fetal period/ rapid postnatal brain growth and delayed body growth
Big Brain advantages and tradeoffs
- increased intelligence
- more complex social organization
- smaller brain at birth
- delayed adulthood, growth, and reproduction
teratogens
substances that cause anomalies during prenatal stages (1st 3 months)
Environmental stressors on maternal and fetal health:
- Radiation
- Infections (ex/ syphilis)
- Medication (ex/ thalidomide: helped with motion sickness, but affected organs)
- Recreational drugs, alcohol, smoking
- Poor nutrition
infant years
birth to 2-3 years
infant details
- rapid growth
- brain 50% of adult size at 6 months
- totally dependent through nursing
** ends when deciduous teeth complete at 2-3 years
child years
weaning 2-3 years to 7 years
child details
continued brain growth brain at 9% at 6 years
- slow body growth
**ends when molar erupts at about 6 years
- adult good
- neuromuscular coordination
- net consumer
developmental plasticity
slow and variable environmental adaptation to increase survival
Juvenile stage years
F: 7-10
M: 7-12
juvenile stage details
- molar appearance
- mid-childhood growth spurt at 6-8 years
** ends at molar 2 with puberty - apprentice adult
- slowly adapting to an environment
- delays reproduction = delayed community growth
adolescence stage years
F: 10-18
M: 12-20
adolescence stage details
- begins at puberty
- sex traits and sexual dimorphism
- females 1st menses
- growth spurts
*** ends at M3 - net producer
- preparing female pelvis for reproduction
- catch up growth
adult stage years
18/20 to 50 years
adult stage details
- growth stops
- max reproductive effort
- parental investment; child survival without expense of the parents health
Post-reproductive longevity years
50 to death
Post-reproductive longevity details
- menopause
- aging
- reduced homeostasis
- senescence
- grandmother hypothesis
- emotional stress over the degeneration of the body
senescence
biological process of loosing tissue and organ function that reducing ability to respond to recess with increasing death
life world expentancy
73.2 years
why bother with NHP?
- comparative basis for understanding our own behavior
- diversity
socioecological approach to studying behavior
behavior, social organization, and diet adapted to local ecology
evolutionary approach to studying behavior
natural selection favors behavior that enhances survival and reproductive success
chimpanzee
pan troglodyte
- 98.9% of DNA with humans
- 4 subspecies
Habitat: Africa; tropical forest, savanna, fringe
- semiterrestrial
resource competition in chimpanzees
- good for female reproductive success
- food quality; better food fed to females
- omnivorous: abundance of plants, but less fruit honey, eggs, milk
- 300 different plants
predatory avoidance
- good for male reproductive success as females are the limiting resource
- increasing females increasing males
- large groups are more visible
- maximizing access, avoid predator
social group
regular interaction, recognition
social structure
demographics, sex, age, kinship
social organization
behavioral aspects of structure, residence, spatial distribution, relationships
gorilla dimorphism
high dimorphism
male = 1.5 x F
polygynous: 1 M, many Fs
chimp dimorphism
moderate dimorphism
male = 1.3 x F
multiple M and F
everyone breeds (polygamy)
owl monkey dimorphism
none
male = female 1:1
monogamous
chimp facial expression
happy: top lip over teeth, bottom teeth exposed
fear/anger: teeth exposed by lips pulled back
measuring chimp dominance
- monitor fights
- food test
- direction of threats
- supplantation, submission
- copulation interruption (intercourse)
- intervention
measuring chimp social hierarchy
- reproductive success
- multi M-F groups with alpha M and F
- mother rank until adult
chimps social organization
unit: mother and offspring
30-80 members
seasonal fission/fusion
** F may transfer after birth, but M remain
how often do chimps go on hunting patrol
4-10 times a months
selective sharing of meat
- not cheaters
- used as political tool and curry male alliances
interbirth interval
balancing current offspring’s survival with additional offspring
mother/infant bond (female investment)
4 years with mother’s rank
- smallest social unit
- provide food, survival teaching, protection
male investment
- fertilize egg
- care if male has parental certainty
- protection
infanticide
killing off of genes of competitor
- no infant –> receptive female
quene
long arm of DNA
petite
short p arm of DNA
2 rules that describe the relationship between thermoregulation and limb length and body size in animals
Bergmann and Allen
human life stage that is different from chimp
childhood
majority of methylation occurs on…
cytosine; open H willing to accept more C and H
Roseland Franklin
discovered DNA
heterozygote in sickle cell anemia is an example of …
balanced polymorphism
balanced polymorphism
a situation in which two different versions of a gene are maintained in a population of organisms because individuals carrying both versions are better able to survive than those who have two copies of either version alone
