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KIN 253 > midterm 2/exam > Flashcards

midterm 2/exam Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 9 indispensable (essential) amino acids?

A

Phenylalanine, Valine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Methionine, Histidine, Isoleucine, Lysine, Leucine

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2
Q

Where does digestion of proteins start?

A

Mechanical digestion beings in the mouth
- no chemical digestion occurs in mouth

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3
Q

What breaks peptide bonds? And what amino acids do they target?

A

Pepsin
- tryptophan and leucine
- breaks very large proteins into smaller but still large polypeptides

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4
Q

What does hydrochloric acid (HCl) do in the stomach?

A

Denatures polypeptides
- breaks secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures
- exposes primary structure of polypeptides to pepsin
- HCl activates pepsin

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5
Q

What does pancreatic juice contain? (4)

A

Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase, Elastase, Trypsin

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6
Q

What does trypsin do?

A

Breaks peptide bonds targeting lysine and arginine
- activates other pro-enzymes in pancreatic juice

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7
Q

What does the brush border release? (2)

A

Dipeptidases, Aminopeptidases

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8
Q

What do dipeptidases do?

A

break peptide bonds of dipeptides creating individual amino acids

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9
Q

What do aminopeptidases do?

A

Breaks terminal (end) amino acid off of amino end of peptide releasing an amino acid

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10
Q

Where are proteins primarily absorbed?

A

jejunum and ileum

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11
Q

What are 2/3 of proteins absorbed as?

A

di- or tripeptides (broken-down into amino acids inside endothelial cells

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12
Q

What are 1/3 of proteins absorbed as?

A

individual amino acids

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13
Q

What are carrier molecules for peptides and amino acids?

A

Active transport - Na+ and H+ (requires ATP)
Facilitated diffusion - Na+

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14
Q

What is absorbed quicker: indispensable or dispensable amino acids?

A

indispensable

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15
Q

What is the difference between exogenous and endogenous proteins?

A

Exogenous - come from our food
Endogenous - come from our body

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16
Q

Where are amino acids taken after absorption? And why?

A

Liver - clearinghouse for most amino acids
Blood - some circulate in the blood for several hours after a meal, branched chain amino acids (BCAA) circulate immediately in plasma
Amino Acid pool - free amino acids circulating in blood or fluid near cells, always in flux because of protein turnover

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17
Q

What are proteins biological functions? (5)

A

Structure and movement, enzymes, hormones and regulators, transportation, bodily defence (immune function)

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18
Q

What proteins are used for structure and movement? (3)

A
  • Actin and myosin interact for muscular contractions
  • Collagen is most abundant structural protein (6% of body weight), found in connective tissue, bone tissue, ligaments and tendons
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19
Q

What do enzymes do?

A

Allow reactions to happen

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20
Q

How do enzymes speed up chemical reactions?

A

Lowering activation energy

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21
Q

What do hormones do?

A

Control bodily processes
- endocrine glands secrete hormones that act on cells in the body
- activation and deactivation of enzymes in critical function

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22
Q

What are transporters and carrier molecules? (proteins)

A

-Membrane transporters bring substances into and out of the cell
- Many molecules must be bound to proteins to enable transportation through the blood plasma or lymph
-Liver makes all proteins found in the blood
- Cell membranes are not permeable to large molecules and rely on embedded protein carriers (transporters)

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23
Q

What do albumins, lipoproteins (HDL and LDL) and Hemoglobin bind to and transport?

A

Albumins - fatty acids, some vitamins, essential minerals, drugs
Lipoproteins - cholesterol, other fats
Hemoglobin - oxygen

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24
Q

What is the immune system made of?

A

Lymphocytes (white blood cells that make antibodies)

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25
Q

What do lymphocytes do?

A

antibodies are polypeptide chains that work like a lock and key with their target pathogen

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26
Q

What is protein synthesis?

A

Assembly of functional polypeptides in cytoplasm

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27
Q

What is gene activation?

A

uncoiling of DNA for transcription

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28
Q

What is transcription?

A

synthesis of mRNA from DNA
- makes temporary ‘copy’ of DNA used during protein synthesis

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29
Q

What adds new RNA bases to mRNA? (copies gene from DNA)

A

RNA polymerase
- before leaving nucleus unused portions of mRNA are removed (introns), and used portions are spliced together (exons)

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30
Q

What are codons?

A

three-base sequences of mRNA
Correspond with specific amino acids

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31
Q

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?

A

Saturated - fully loaded with hydrogen, no double bonds
Unsaturated - missing hydrogens, has double bonds

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32
Q

What is the difference between mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids?

A

Mono - 1 double bonds
Poly - more than 1 double bonds

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33
Q

What are the orientations and positions of double bonds? and what do they mean?

A

Cis - naturally occurring, hydrogens on same side of double bond, adds bend to molecule
Trans - created in commercial food process called hydrogenation, hydrogens are on opposite sides of double bond, bend is removed

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34
Q

What are triglycerides?

A

3 fatty acids attached to 1 glycerol molecule
- The 3 fatty acids can be the same but are usually different

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35
Q

How can you tell between saturated, poly- and monounsaturated fats?

A

Saturated - usually solid at room temperature, ex. coconut oils, animal fats
Monounsaturated - usually liquid at room temperature, ex. olive and canola oils
Polyunsaturated - tend to be liquid at room temperature, ex. safflower and corn oils

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36
Q

How many fatty acids are essential? And what does that mean?

A

2
Must be obtained from our diet, can’t be manufactured by the body

37
Q

What are the essential fatty acids? (2)

A

Linoleic acid, Alpha-linolenic acid

38
Q

What is linoleic acid?

A

18-carbon omega 6 fatty acid
Found in many vegetable oils ex. corn, soy, safflower, sunflower

39
Q

What is alpha-linelenic acid?

A

18-carbon omega-3 fatty acid
Found in soy, canola, flaxseed oils, leafy green vegetables, feet fish, fish oils

40
Q

What do omega-3 fatty acids do?

A

lowering blood pressure, reducing inflammation, blood clotting, improving lipid profiles

41
Q

What are sterols?

A

Contain ring structures and include cholesterol, vitamin D and steroid hormones

42
Q

How are phospholipids different than triglycerides?

A

Phospholipids contain a phosphate group
Phospholipids have a polar head and non polar tail
- Polar head is hydrophilic and contains phosphate
- non polar tail is hydrophobic and is made of 2 fatty acids

43
Q

What do dietary fats have an impact on?

A

Satiety and Gastric emptying rate
Satiety - sensation of fullness, lipids in duodenum stimulate release of cholecystokinin (CCK) which stimulates bile salts release from gallbladder, CCK also suppresses hunger
Gastric Emptying Rate - rate that chyme enters the duodenum, mediated by CCK, allows proteins in stomach to continue to denature, eases load on digestive organs

44
Q

What is bile?

A

Alkaline mixture that neutralizes stomach acid in duodenum

45
Q

What does bile consist of? (7)

A

Water, Bile salts, phospholipids, Bilirubin, electrolytes, cholesterol, triglycerides

46
Q

How does bile work?

A
  • Hydrophobic region interacts with large lipid molecules (non-water soluble)
  • Hydrophilic region interacts with watery chyme in intestine
  • Emulsification results as large lipid globules are pulled apart into many tiny micelles
  • Micelles increase surface area for pancreatic lipase
47
Q

What does pancreatic lipase digest triglycerides into? (3)

A

Free fatty acids, diglycerides, monoglycerides

48
Q

What do chylomicrons do?

A

Deliver fats to cells throughout the body
- chylomicrons diffuse out of epithelial cells and enter lacteal in villi
- Chylomicron remnant is removed from blood by the liver
- Chylomicrons are slowly released into lymph

49
Q

What does lipoprotein lipase (LPL) do?

A

digest triglycerides in chylomicron to release free fatty acids (FFA) and monoglycerides that can enter cells of body tissues for ATP production via oxidative phosphorylation

50
Q

How are fats transported?

A

Bound to carrier proteins called lipoproteins

51
Q

How are lipoproteins characterized?

A

By size, density and composition (amount of fat and protein)
- Higher the fat content, lower the density
-

52
Q

What is VLDL?

A

Very Loe-density lipoprotein
- high triglycerides content (65%)
- deliver triglycerides to body tissues when fasted and transition into IDL when triglycerides content is reduced by half

53
Q

What is IDL?

A

Intermediate-density lipoprotein
- created when VLDL triglyceride content is halved

54
Q

What is LDL?

A

Low-density lipoproteins
- When IDL return to liver they are transformed into LDLs to deliver cholesterol to body tissues
- LDL contains very little triglycerides and are 50% cholesterol
- Circulating LDls bind to LDL RECEPTORS ON CELLS AND ENTER THE CLELL TO DELIVER cholesterol to tissues
- Unused cholesterol re-enters the blood where ir binds with HDL
- Low levels of LDL receptors (likely linked wit high dietary saturated fat) can lead to uncreased circulation of LDL in the blood which can increase deposition of LDL in large blood vessels;s leading to fatty streaks and atherosclerosis

55
Q

What is HDL?

A

High-density lipoprotein
- HDL are characterized by high lipoprotein content (20-30% protein)
- HDL transport excess cholesterol in blood to the liver where it is wither reused to removed from the body with bile

56
Q

What are the functions for fats in the body? (4)

A

Storing energy, Regulation and signalling, insulating and protecting, aiding in digestion and increasing bioavailability

57
Q

How do lipids regulate body functions?

A
  • Help regulate internal climate (limited fat stores = cold sooner, tired)
  • essential for production and regulation of eicosaanoids, leptin
  • cholesterol is foundation for all steroid hormones (androgens, estrogens, progesterone)
  • sustain nerve impulse transmission, memory storage, tissue structure and function
58
Q

How do lipids insulate and protect us?

A
  • heart, liver and kidneys are protected by visceral fat
    -brain is composed of ~60% fat
  • subcutaneous fat insulates us from cold and cushions our bodies from impacts
  • fat pads in joints absorb and cushion bones and joint structures
59
Q

How to lipids aid in digestion and absorption?

A

Fat soluble nutrients mainly found in fat containing foods
- Vitamin A,D,E,K are fat soluble and absorption is enhanced if fat is present when consuming them
- Fats enhance absorption of several phytochemical believed to promote health

60
Q

What is the difference between hyperhydration, euhydration and hypohydration? And what do they all mean in the body?

A

Hyperhydration - excess water volume in body, usually temporary in healthy individuals
Euhydration - having adequate water to meet physiological demands
Hypohydration - insufficient water volume in body

61
Q

What does dehydration mean?

A

process of going from euhydration to hypohydration

62
Q

What is water balance influenced by?

A

Water volume and concentration of solute

63
Q

What electrolytes are involved in fluid balance?

A

Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, HCO3-(bicarbonate), PO43-(phosphate), protein

64
Q

How much fluid is typically in a body? and what is influenced by?

A

42L
- body size (larger = more water)
- age (younger= more water)
- body composition (leaner = more water)

65
Q

What percent of water is found where in the body?

A

66% Intercellular fluid (inside cells)
33% extracellular fluid
- 25% interstitial fluid (between cells, lymph, GI, spinal column, fluid in eyes, tears synovial fluid)
- 8% blood plasma

66
Q

What is intracellular fluid (ICF)?

A

Water within cells
-2/3 of all body water (~28L)
-Muscle is ~75-80% water
- Bones is ~22% water

67
Q

What is extracellular fluid (ECF)?

A

Water not within cells
- 1/3 of all body water (~14L)

68
Q

What is ECF divided into?

A

Plasma and Interstitial fluid

69
Q

What is plasma?

A

Accounts for 20% of aECF
- Contained in vascular system
- Acts as fluid reservoir and is critical for thermoregulation

70
Q

What is interstitial fluid?

A

80% of ECF
- acts as avenue for exchange between plasma and cells

71
Q

Where else can ECF be found? (other than 2 major divisions)

A

Lymph and Transcellular fluids
- found is specialized cells, joints, areas around internal organs, heart, lungs, eyes, digestive juices

72
Q

What are the key cations (1) and anions (2) in interstitial fluid and plasma?

A

Cation - Sodium
Anions - Chlorine and bicarbonate

72
Q

What drives water movement?

A

Hydrostatic pressure
- Difference between in fluid pressure between 2 areas
Osmosis
- Water in area with lower solute concentration will move to red of higher solute concentration

73
Q

What happens if concentrations of solutes change?

A

Fluid shifts will occur
- If sodium in ECF decreases, water moves out of cells by osmosis
- If sodium in ECF increases, water moves into cells by osmosis

74
Q

What can affect homeostasis of water concentration?

A
  • Heavy sweating resulting in loss of water from ECF
  • Consumption of large amounts of water results in temporary increase of water in ECF
75
Q

What is the difference between insensible and sensible water loss?

A

Insensible - water loss not noticeable to the individual, breathing, non-sweat losses via skin to maintain skin moisture, average daily loss is ~1000mL
Sensible - water loss is noticeable, feces (~100mL), sweat (~100mL-several litres), urine (~1500mL)

76
Q

What impacts kidneys role in fluid balance?

A

fluid and sodium intake, renal function, hormones, consumption of diuretics

77
Q

How is water added to the body?

A

Intake of foods and beverages
- water from metabolism contributes ~350mL/day

78
Q

What is hyperhydration?

A

Renal system overwhelmed by large amounts of water quickly
- Usually temporary condition
- osmotic substances such as glycerol might prolong state
- Renal system responds by increasing urine output
- Water shifts from ECf into cells
- Cell function is impaired

79
Q

What is hypohydration?

A

Body fluid level is below normal from inadequate intake or excessive loss
- Water loss from ECF causes water to shift from cells to ECF, cell function is impaired
- Adverse effects on athletic performance, thermoregulation and health

80
Q

What are the dangers of hyperhydration?

A

Impaired brain function, coma, death

81
Q

What electrolyte has the biggest impact on water distribution? and why?

A

Sodium
- water will follow sodium

82
Q

What is a nephron? and what do they do?

A

Functional units of kidneys
- Filter blood and modify it to produce urine
- Maintain homeostasis of electrolytes and pH in blood
- Excrete potential toxins like ammonia (in urea)
- Regulate blood pressure via renin
- red blood cel formation with EPO (erythropoietin)
- calcium absorption via Vitamin D

83
Q

What is the renal corpuscle? and what does it do?

A

Where blood is filtered
- red blood cells and large protein molecules do not leave capillaries within renal corpuscle
- blood plasma is forced out of capillaries of glomerulus and into Bowman’s capsule

84
Q

What is Bowman’s capsule?

A

double-walled, cuplike structure that encloses the glomerulus

85
Q

What is the glomerulus?

A

Network of capillaries where blood is filtered
- Glomerulus filtration rate (GFR) is important physiological variable
- afferent arteriole delivers blood to glomerulus
- efferent arteriole allows unfiltered plasma to continue into peritubular capillaries where selective reabsorption and secretion occur across nephron

86
Q

What does the loop of Henle do?

A

concentrates urine
- ascending loop pumps sodium and chlorine ions out of nephron into renal medulla increasing concentration in renal pyramids
- water and urea diffuse out of descending loop concentration renal filtrate as it descends
- most urea is reabsorbed in ascending loop
- ascending loop is impermeable to water so filtrate become hypotonic
-

87
Q

What is the difference between cortical nephrons and juxtamedullary nephrons?

A

cortical - loop of Henle remains in renal cortex
juxtamedullary - loop of Henle goes into renal medulla

KIN 253 (3 decks)

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