Midterm 2 Flashcards
what are the 3 profiles of temperament according to Thomas and Chess (1977)?
did a longitudinal study and traced the lives of 141 individuals from infancy to adulthood
- suggested that infants’ behaviour various along 9 temperamental dimensions and identified 3 patterns/profiles of temperament :
1. easy child (40% of the sample):adaptive, cheerful; established routines
2. the slow-to-warm-up child (15% of sample): inactive, low key reactions, negative mood; adjusts slowly (not upset by unfamiliar situations)
3. the difficult child (10% of sample): irregular routines, slow to accept new experiments, reacts negatively/high reactivity (upset by unfamiliar situations) - 2/3 of difficult children had behavioural issues in school; less than 1/5 of easy children did (so some stability to model but not perfect)
- the influence of temperament often depends on the environment in which the child develops
what is self-regulation and what is associated with difficulties with self regulation?
the ability to monitor and control our own behaviour, emotions; or thoughts
- we can see early differences in self-regulation as well
- difficulties with self regulation increase risk of alcohol, drug, gambling issues as adults and ADD diagnosis in school
compare inhibited(shy) and sociable children and what these temperaments are linked to *not all kids fit into a category
shy children react negatively and or withdraw from novel stimuli
sociable children display positive emotions and approach novel stimuli
*linked to: neurology (amygdala); RH frontal lobe; neural circuit for shyness and parenting
temperament does show some stability but explain how it can change over time
it depends largely on the parenting habits- if a good match b/w parents and child then there is more adaptive functioning (temperament change)
if the child is a difficult child and the parent has positive parent attributes (patient, sensitive and demanding) instead of negative parent attributes (irritable, impatient and demanding), then the child may have more adaptive functioning
*NSE- linked to negative attributes (irritability, fearfulness, etc.)
temperament and emotional development are also linked to attachment; define attachment
= strong, affectionate tie/close emotional relationship
- comforted by nearness/desire to maintain proximity (john Bowlby, 1969)
- learned from the monkey study, attachment is meeting emotional needs; demonstrated around 6 months
define temperament
a person’s or animal’s nature, especially as it permanently affects their behaviour
- behavioural styles, which are fairly stable across situations and are biologically based, make up an infant’s temperament
- the differences in emotion and style of behaviour are evident in the first few weeks after birth and are important throughout life
Ethological theory?
views development from an evolutionary perspective
-behaviours in this theory are inherited and are
an adaptive response that have survival value (crying, grasping, clinging elicit caregiving from adults)
Behaviours promote:
-survival
-emotional development
-feelings of security
-capacity for future relationships
*according to Bowlby, children who form attachment to an adult are more likely to survive (the monkeys isolated but still given food avoided the others when put in a cage with other monkeys)
describe the belief around separation anxiety and when does it emerge and peak?
now seen as a good thing
- is this fear or a milestone of attachment ?
- seen at 6-8 months, peaks at 14-18 months, then decreases
- seen as a positive association with attachment
Describe the 4 attachment profiles derived from the Strange Situation task. Which one has the highest stability?
- Secure attachment(65%); explores room, responsive to stranger in parents presence but may be upset when they leave. Calmed by their return and more attached to caregiver than a stranger
- Avoidant(20%): not visibly upset when parent leaves and when they return, may ignore them by looking or turning away (treats stranger same way as parent)
- Resistant(10-15%): upset when the mother leaves, remains upset or even angry when she returns and is difficult to console. weary of stranger even with parent close
- Disorganized(5%): seems confused when mother leaves and when she returns, seems to not really understand what’s happening (don’t know whether to approach or avoid). most stressed by the procedure and show patterns of both avoidant and resistant behaviour *most stable out of the 4 (often from kids who were sexually abused)
Attachment theory?
Attachment theory states that a strong emotional and physical attachment to at least one primary caregiver is critical to personal development
how is attachment measured in children?
the quality of attachment is judged from reaction to both separation and reunion to mother give important info about the nature of the infant-caregiver relationship
-studied using the strange situation procedure for 1&2yr olds - measuring individual differences
Describe the caregiving hypothesis
attachment patterns are largely determined from parenting
- according to Ainsworth(1979), initial attachment depends more on caregiver than child!
- parents who describe their own childhood as one of secure attachment, tend to have parent strategies to promote attachment
describe the stability of attachment
typically stable for middle + SES homes
-low SES home-> may move from secure to insecure or move around insecure patterns
what are the 2 possible caregiver profiles of avoidant babies?
- impatient, unresponsive, negative affect
2. over stimulating, but not tuned into infant signals
what are the 2 possible caregiver profiles of resistant babies?
associated with inconsistent parenting
what are the 2 possible caregiver profiles of disorganized/disoriented babies?
can be related to neglect/abuse
does childcare/daycare impact attachment?
overall no, but less sensitive parenting combined with higher hours and/or lower quality of childcare, results in less secure attachment profiles
“quality of care” matters; ratio of workers to children; training; oversight, stability of staff
*some reseach shows increased aggression, lower vocabulary in preschoolers with more than 30hrs a week in daycare
*longer parental leave associated with increased attachment
what are the two proposed critical aspects of parenting ?
- acceptance/responsiveness
- demanding/control (reasonable demands and limits)
* consistency is also important
- >parenting/childcare make up our “environment” over the first few years of life…
What are some child outcomes associated with permissive parenting? Uninvolved?
permissive parenting is associated with less demands for the child as the parent is less demanding/controlling but yet is responsive. The outcome is impulse control and self-regulation
-uninvolved parenting, the parents have less demands/control and are less responsive/accepting. child outcome is aggression, poor academic performance, anti-social and high risk behaviours in adolescence
What are some child outcomes associated with authoritative parenting? authoritarian?
-authoritative parenting (have both acceptance and control)
-authoritarian (lack acceptance/responsiveness but have control
authoritative parenting is better than authoritarian parenting
Describe the 4 main parenting styles with respect to control and acceptance measures
- authoritative parenting (have both acceptance and control)
- authoritarian parenting (lack acceptance/responsiveness but have control
- permissive parenting ( associated with less demands for the child as the parent is less demanding/controlling but yet is responsive)
- Uninvolved parenting ( the parents have less demands/control and are less responsive/accepting)
how do we test infants
preferential looking, facial expression, habituation, sucking rate, heart rate
define habituation
becoming unresponsive to a stimulus upon repeated presentation
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
sensation= detection of stimuli by sensory receptors and transmission to brain
perception= interpretation of sensory input (may be dependent upon experience with the environment)
*therefore, moral of the story, stimulate your baby- auditory, vision etc.
what have people studied with infants?
smell, taste, touch- highly sensitive in infancy, hearing-auditory threshold is higher but sensitivity to speech sounds is greater, vision- almost blind when born
what do newborns (1 month olds) see? how does it develop?
newborns/1 month olds see at 6 metres what normal adults see at 60-120 metres (almost blind when born )
- their acuity improves rapidly and by the first bday, is essentially the same as that of a normal adult (20/20)
- color vision develops over first 3 months
- large environmental role (recall autostimulation theory)
- Beyond acuity: note that form perception is complex as it requires interpretation
describe babies and the complex form perception of faces. what are they capable of at 3 months?
babies dont necessarily like faces but rather complex things. However, if the stimulation was moving, they preferred to look at faces
- at 3 months: can discriminate b/w pictures and prefer “attractive” faces
how were infants studied in relation to 3 dimensional space (their depth perception) ?
When do kids show fear on the visual cliff apparatus?
- > the visual cliff study (mothers tried to get their babies to craw to them across the real looking fake cliff or glass-covered platoform)
- > depth perception is tied to motor development (if they perceived depth then their heart rate went up)
- if they went across the glass, it was associated with crawling because early crawlers had earlier depth perception
- only older, crawling babies are afraid of the deep side(fear of the drop is related to the amount of experience an infant has in crawling
What is an ‘auditory threshold’?
refers to the quietest sound that a person can hear (babies cant hear as well as adults and have a higher auditory threshold)
Infants’ reflexes are used as evidence that they have sensitivity to what sensation?
touch produces reflexive movements, documenting an infants ability to perceive touch
what is intermodal perception? example?
=refers to perception of information from objects or events available to multiple senses simultaneously.
integrating sensory info-> when we combine stimulation from more than one sense
or… the ability to use one sensory system to identify someone familiar though another sensory system
ex. reaching= vision and touch or being able to see, taste, smell, feel, and hear yourself taking a big bite out of an apple.
-Because most objects and events can be seen, heard, and touched, everyday perception is primarily intermodal
-virtual objects study with 8-31 day old infants: suggests systems are connected (vision and touch- baby will freak out if they cant touch what they are seeing)
define learning
change in behaviour as a result of experience or practice
Habituation is linked to growth in what part of the brain in the first year of life? Is quick habituation regarded as a good thing or not?
habituation-> early learning: linked to cerebral cortex development (quick habituation is a good thing-> it is good for infants to get bored easily/fast as this may mean that they are fast learners and no longer are responsive to a stimulus that has repeated presentation )
classical conditioning vs operant conditioning
Are both processes that lead to learning:
Classical conditioning-
->Pavlov’s dogs- learned to expect food at the sound of a bell and began to salivate without actually seeing/smelling the food
->food= unconditioned stimulus
->salivation= unconditioned response (becomes conditioned?)
->bell= neutral stimulus that becomes a conditioned stimulus
->pairs two stimuli
Operant conditioning. ( B.F. Skinner) -
- > operant response leads to either reinforcement or punishment (both are either positive or negative)
- > positive= adding something to the environment (could be something good to increase the behaviour ie. pos. reinforcement, or bad to decrease the behaviour ie. pos. punishment
- > Negative= taking away something to either increase the response ie. neg. reinforcement, or decrease the behaviour, ie. neg. punishment
- > pairs behaviour and response and leads to changes in voluntary behaviour