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MCB c61 > midterm 2 > Flashcards

midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

effects of cocaine

A

psychoactive effects; stimulant (inc BP, HR); at synapses, blocks reuptake transporters for dopamine, norep. ; sympathomimetic ; overstimulates CNS and autonomic

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2
Q

what are the effects of stimulants such as amphetamine at synapses

A

mess with transporters by letting NTs leak out, but not go bak into synaptic cell → high concentration of stimulants in synaptic cleft

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3
Q

what is morphine come from

A

opium from opium poppy

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4
Q

1st abt morphine?

A

1st time someone purifed chemical substance from plant and claimed it carried the same properties

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5
Q

1st abt heroin

A

first example of chemical derivative of natural occurring substance that altered

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6
Q

how come general anesthetics can enter cells

A

are nonpolar enough to go thru membrane

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7
Q

psychosis

A

loss of capacity to judge if in reality or not–> hallucinations and delusions

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8
Q

schizophrenia

A

when psychosis affects life, chronic psychotic condition

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9
Q

how to reduce psychosis maybe

A

dopamine receptor antagonists –> reduce activity in the brain and reduce psychosis

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10
Q

how to antidepressants

A

impact on norepinephrine or serotonin

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11
Q

monoamine hypothesis of depression

A

dep related to malfunction in certain monoamine NT (esp serotonin)

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12
Q

what do psychedelics interact with

A

5-HTzA, a specific serotonin receptor

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13
Q

what is schedule one controlled substance

A

no accepted medical use, high potential for abuse

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14
Q

Raphael mechoulam

A

discovered psychoactive ingredients in THC in 1960s and promoted importance of doing this kind of science in 60s, 70s

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15
Q

prominent cannabinoids

A

THC-A, CBD, THC

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16
Q

what THC do

A

psychosomatic - amplifies thoughts and feelings which can be umcomfy, esp for ppl vulnerable to psychoses

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17
Q

what CBD dp

A

antipsychotic (opposite of THC)–> decrease in psychotic symptoms

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18
Q

cannabinoid receptors

A

found throughout brain and body, one of most abundant NT receptor types; are GPCRs

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19
Q

endocannabinoids

A

endogenous substances that are reacting with the cannabinoid receptors; are produced and released by postsynaptic neuron and goes back to presynaptic

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20
Q

retrograde signal

A

postsynaptic going to presynaptic (opposite way);

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21
Q

neuroplasticity

A

idea that synapses can change in strength , ie how much NT and how long staying in synapse

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22
Q

how change synapse strength ie neuroplasticity

A

1 way is by altering voltage gated ion channels;
can alter reuptake transporters, more of these means a weaker synapse;
Can change number of postsynaptic NT receptors;
(can all be mediated by retrograde signals)

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23
Q

approximate % transcribed and% translated

A

<3% of human genome codes for functional protein, remaining 97% transcribed into RNA and is all involved in regulating genes

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24
Q

embryonic development

A

Day 1: fertilization

→ cell division → embryonic disc (day 15) → neural tube (day 23) which becomes the brain and spinal cord

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25
Q

what governs neuron system differentiation

A

transcription factors- proteins that form complexes sit on DNA and activate transcription of genes

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26
Q

process of achieving differentiation of brain cells

A

Stem cells → neuron system progenitor cell → neurogenesis and gliogenesis occur together w axon and dendrite branching

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27
Q

synaptogenesis

A

includes pruning of synapse, activity-dependent survival, stabilization thru use and destabilization thru disuse (all relates to plasticity)

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28
Q

roger sperry experiment

A

one with eye and the frog

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29
Q

chemoaffinity hypothesis

A

neurons use specific chemical signals to guide their wiring (migration and synaptogenesis) during development

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30
Q

nerve growth factors do what

A

effects in guidance of neurons and wiring, ie chemical guidance in axon growth (contact and soluble factors)

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31
Q

chemotaxis

A

means moving toward chemicals

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32
Q

how E coli sense sugar

A

with flagella (little motors), has chemoreceptor proteins that detect attractants and direct the bacteria –> bias random swim toward attractants by controlling tumbling

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33
Q

naïve realism

A

what we sense is actually what is out there

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34
Q

range of human sensitivity to electromagnetic energy spectrum

A

400-700 nm (visible light)

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35
Q

karl von frisch

A

studied honeybee vision and behavior

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36
Q

honeyguide

A

bees can see UV pattern on flowers, use as bullseye to know where the center of the flower is

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37
Q

IR sensing in pit vipers

A

rattlesnakes and other pit vipers can image IR radiation (with pit organ?)

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38
Q

how do night vision devices work

A

either image intensifiers or show IR/thermal light

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39
Q

light polarization

A

most light is unpolarized but can do things to polarize, meaning cutting out all directions except one

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40
Q

how does sunlight become polarized

A

is initially unpolarized but becomes polarized by bouncing air molecules

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41
Q

skylight polarization pattern

A

sunlight has different polarization based on location/distance from equator –> lots of animals can navigate based on this polarization

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42
Q

passive electroreception

A

detecting electric field associated with something; for example sharks use it to locate animals for food

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43
Q

active electroreception

A

fish is generating stronger electric fields, measuring it and looking for changes or distortion → can have electrocommunication using active electroreception

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44
Q

George berkeley

A

it isn’t possible to have existence out of the minds of thinking things which perceive them (the limit of thought/consciousness)

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45
Q

taste vs flavor

A

flavor includes taste, smell, pungency (spicy/hot), texture

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46
Q

5 types of gustatory receptor cells

A

salt, sour, bitter, sweet, umami

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47
Q

what are two main pathways for gustatory receptor cells

A

1) Tongue → cranial nerves 7,9,10–> brainstem → thalamus → insula → somatosensory cortex
2) Tongue → cranial nerves 7,9,10–> brainstem → hypothalmus → amygdala

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48
Q

what are taste buds

A

Clusters of Receptor cells that begin the tasting process; located in mouth on tongue with a few on upper palate and pharynx; there is a pore that exposes receptor cells to interior of mouth

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49
Q

how many taste buds in mouth

A

~10,000 (and a million receptor cells!)

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50
Q

structure of gustatory receptor cell

A

Ends of receptor cells composed of microvilli and within the membrane of microvilli are taste receptor proteins; at base, is a contact point, a chemical synapse w nerve fibers that respond to NT molecules released by the taste receptor cells

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51
Q

how often are gustatory cells replaced

A

every ~2 weeks

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52
Q

how get salt taste

A

NaCl mostly → Na+ flows thru sodium ion channels in the salt taste receptor cells (conclusively identified)

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53
Q

how get sour taste

A

acids, release of H+ in soln; H+ flows thru hydrogen channels in sour taste receptor cells

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54
Q

how get bitter taste

A

many things including plant alkaloids; GPCRs not ion channels; more than 30 different GPCR assoc w bitter taste

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55
Q

how get sweet taste

A

sucrose, glucose, etc ; two GPCRs are linked to form the functional sweet receptor

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56
Q

how get umami taste

A

glutamate/MSG; metabotropic GCPR glutamate receptor

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57
Q

types of gustatory receptor proteins

A

ion channels and GPCRs

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58
Q

sweeter-than-sugar sweeteners

A

Artifical sweeteners: saccharin 300x sweeter than sucrose, also has a bitter taste; aspartame the most widely used 200x sweeter than sucrose; sucralose 600x sweeter “Splenda”
neotme 10,000x sweeter
Non-artificial - steviol

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59
Q

what cranial nerves for taste

A

cranial nerves 7,9,10

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60
Q

cranial nerve for spicy signals

A

cranial nerve 5, spicy hot considered part of pain system not taste system

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61
Q

capsaicin

A

molecule that makes chili spicy

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62
Q

capsaicin signaling pathway

A

binds to receptor protein, opens an ion channel and Ca ions flow into receptor cell→ depolarization→ increased neural excitability

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63
Q

GPCR multimer

A

proteins link together to form different units so they can use responses to one trigger to inform response to others

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64
Q

Delbrück’s “Principle of Limited Sloppiness”

A

idea that the best discoveries have just enough sloppiness to accidentally do something but able to retrace the steps

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65
Q

miraculin, miracle fruit

A

West African berry that makes sour things sweet that binds to sweet receptor GCPRs in very acidic conditions (agonist effects at very low pH)

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66
Q

TRPV1

A

capsaicin receptor, responsible for spicy hot sensation, not just in mouth, all over body

67
Q

TRPV8

A

responds to cold aka menthol/mint receptor –> produces experience of coolness

68
Q

TRPA1

A

different kind of spicy hot (mustard, horseradish, wasabi) activated with allyl-isothiocyanate

69
Q

isothiocyanates

A

mustard, horseradish, wasabi

70
Q

differences in perception of cilantro taste

A

Some ppl experience leaf as yummy, others experience it as soapy due to more sensitive GPCR receptor

71
Q

structure of eye

A

on surface of retina, photoreceptor cells, rods and cones; fovea is center of retina

72
Q

rod receptors

A

contain photoreceptor protein, rhodopsin, and are sensitive to dim light → responsible for dim light vision

73
Q

cone receptors

A

Cone receptors contain photoreceptor protein, cone-opsin, activated w bright light

74
Q

photoreceptor proteins

A

rhodopsin and cone-opsin, both are GPCRs activated by light

75
Q

types of cones

A

3 types of cones (S has peak of 420, M has peak of 530, L has peak of 560)

76
Q

wavelength peak for rods

A

498

77
Q

how get color in vision?

A

Different wavelengths activate different cones to varying degrees

78
Q

distribution of photoreceptor cells in retina

A

Cones are almost all within a 4mm region at center of retina (fovea);
Almost no rods at fovea and increase as go out
None of either at blind spot

79
Q

number of photoreceptor cells

A

rods (100 million); cones (5 million)

80
Q

how many rhodopsin proteins in one rod cell

A

up to 100 million –> 10^16 photoreceptor proteins in human eye

81
Q

retinal achromatopsia

A

loss of all cone cells –> no color vision

82
Q

retinal

A

light absorbing protein embedded within the photoreceptor protein that starts cascade that leads to neural signal, have to consume retinal, usually in form of beta-carotene (found in carrots), and vitamin A

83
Q

blind spot

A

a space near the fovea where there are no rods/cone cells and where axons from neurons in the retina form the optic nerve (1E6 nerve cells); not enough space for photoreceptor

84
Q

location of coding for photoreceptor proteins on chromosomes

A

M,L opsins on X chromosome, S and rhodopsin on non-sex chromosome

85
Q

color anomalous

A

opsin protein’s amino acid sequence slightly changes, altering ability to differentiate between different colors

86
Q

structure of photoreceptor proteins

A

Both rhodopsin & cone opsin has ~350 aa sequence in a chain embedded in lipid bilayer membrane (crosses 7 times)

87
Q

light-induced isomerization/photoisomerization

A

when retinal is bound to opsin protein, it is kinked (cis), but adsorption of photom triggers rotation around double bond –> trans and is no longer kinked

88
Q

GPCR intracellular cascade

A

light absorbed by cis retinal, isomerizes to trans form, activating opsin protein & making it available to bind with an intracellular G-protein; G-protein interacts with cGMP & activates it; phosphodiesterase interacts with cGMP to make it noncyclic GMP; GMP’s interaction with certain ion channels keep them open until concentration decreases, altering the membrane potential and change amt of NT released at synapse

89
Q

3 layers of retina

A

photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, ganglion cells

90
Q

bipolar cells

A

form synapses with rods & cones & bipolar form synapses with ganglion cells, which then send info to the brain

91
Q

ganglion cells

A

Ganglion cell axons bundle together to form optic nerve, 1E6 ganglion cells

92
Q

pathway from eyes to brain

A

eye–> optic nerve–> optic chiasm–>(90% go to)thalamus–>LGN–>posterior occipital lobe where form synapses with cortical neurons

93
Q

contralateral connectivity

A

right side of brain receiving info from left visual space; left side of brain receiving info from right visual space

94
Q

what part of brain is responsible for analysis of visual information

A

visual cortex - occipital lobes and posterior regions of the temporal lobes

95
Q

visual cortex

A

region of the brain that analyzes visual info: info first enters V1 in posterior occipital lobe, then cells in V1 send xons to nearby V2-V5 (highly interconnected); many neurons in visual cortex also send axons back to the LGN

96
Q

what do specific visual areas respond to?

A

V1: mostly responds to contrast (edges + space); V4: specific colors; V5: movement

97
Q

superior colliculus

A

part of midbrain that 10% of optic nerve axons enter; heavily involved in rapid responses to sensory stimuli that don’t involve awareness

98
Q

scotoma

A

blind spot in a specific region of space, caused by a lesion in V1

99
Q

hemianopsia

A

loss of vision in one half of visual space

100
Q

cortical achromatopsia

A

washed out/faded color perception caused by lesion in v4

101
Q

akinetopsia

A

motion blindness, caused by lesion in V5

102
Q

prosopagnosia

A

person has difficulty recognizing faces caused by lesion in post temporal lobe

103
Q

agnosia

A

struggle with recognizing all or nearly all visual objects

104
Q

receptive field of a cell

A

region of space from which stimulants elicit neural response

105
Q

blindsight

A

ppl surprisingly good at guessing things despite being in a blindspot; knows but isn’t aware

106
Q

sound waves caused by

A

changes in density, pressure of air molecules

107
Q

relationship bt frequency and wavelength

A

higher the frequency, shorter the wavelength; lower frequency = longer wavelength

108
Q

higher pitch or tone due to

A

higher frequency

109
Q

loudness associated with

A

amplitude or magnitude

110
Q

human hearing range

A

20-20,000 Hz

111
Q

speed of sound

A

1100 ft/s, 335 m/s, 750 mph

112
Q

timbre

A

complexity of sound waveform beyond pure tone

113
Q

joseph fourier and fourier analysis

A

can get any complex waveform from a sum of simple sine waves

114
Q

inner ear consists of

A

cochlea, semicircular canals = bony labyrinth, filled with fluid that vibrates

115
Q

basilar membrane

A

runs down length of cochlea and also vibrates; has varying thickness that corresponds to different frequencies

116
Q

where are hair cells

A

along length of basilar membrane

117
Q

roughly how do hair cells get signals to brain

A

As cilia swoosh from vibration, the cells form chemical synapses w fibers of the auditory nerve, cranial nerve 8, sending info to brain

118
Q

hairs intracellular pathway

A

Hairs connected by tiny molecular cables which are coupled to positive ion channels, as hairs bend, cables tug on channels and open them → K+ flow into hairs = depolarization of hair cell’s membrane potential → voltage gated Ca channels open → Ca++ flows into cell → NT release etc

119
Q

inner vs outer hair cells

A

Inner hair cells( about 3500 in each ear) are ones more involved in sending signals to brain; outer hair cells receive more input from the brainstem, also involved in changing sensitivity of basilar membrane

120
Q

auditory neural pathway into brain

A

NT released from hair cell→ cranial nerve 8 which are clustered in spiral ganglion, are bipolar neurons, single dendrite gets signal and a single axon sends into brainstem→ synapse w cells in cochlear nucleus→ regions of the pons called superior olive and lateral lemniscus→ inferior colliculus in midbrain→ MGN of thalamus→ primary auditory cortex, A1

121
Q

different causes of hearing loss

A

infection, genetics, noise-induced

122
Q

vestibular system

A

Detects our orientation relative to gravity and our acceleration as we move, walk, turn;
Consists of 3 semicircular canals, and two cavities - utricle and saccule

123
Q

what do utricle and saccule do

A

Contain receptor cells that detect the movement of fluid in the attached semicircular canals

124
Q

otolith

A

Tiny microscopic stones, “ear stones” suspended in the fluid above the hair cells ; contribute to us being able to balance

125
Q

olfactory receptor cells

A

embedded in nasal epithelium, have cilia on ends

126
Q

cilia (olfactory)

A

On the ends of olfactory receptor cells, extend into mucus lining of nasal passage, large surface area that contain olfactory receptor proteins

127
Q

olfactory receptor proteins

A

GPCRs, many different types, humans have ~350; can discriminate large number of smells bc a certain odorant will bind to multiple proteins at varying degrees

128
Q

pseudogene

A

Nonfunctional genes that appear to code for olfactory GPCRs but do not code for functional proteins
Have about 600
Speculated that we used to have more sophisticated sense of smell

129
Q

essential oil

A

Oily concentrate of aromatic molecules from a plant
Oily bc aroma carrying molecules are usually hydrophobic
Often prepared by distillation

130
Q

aromas

A

comprised of dozens of different molecules activating various combos of olfactory receptor proteins to create a specific smell experience

131
Q

molecules assoc w lemon and rose

A

lemon - geranial

rose- geraniol

132
Q

sulfur, thiols

A

thio refers to element sulfur, thiol refers to -SH group; stinky; some found in asparagus pee

133
Q

specific anosmia

A

loss of sensitivity to a specific kind of smell, most likely caused by genetic variation in one of the proteins

134
Q

general anosmia

A

loss of sensitivity to a large variety of aromas, in some cases even a complete lack of olfactory sensitivity; variety of causes including nasal congestion, head trauma, brain disease, developmental factors

135
Q

hyperosmia

A

increased sensitivity to odors

136
Q

intracellular pathway for olfactory cell

A

Activation of an olfactory GPCR initiates an intracellular cascade → synthesis of cAMP→ interacts with cation channel that is gated by the binding of cyclic nucleotides → influx of Ca++ and Na+ → depolarizes cell and generates signal

137
Q

pathway from olfactory to brain

A

receptor cell–> cranial nerve 1 → olfactory bulb where axons form synapses with dendrites of mitral cells → send axons to pyriform cortex (and to amygdala for other nasal passage??, in the limbic system) → pyriform sends axons to thalamus → makes connections to orbitofrontal cortex of frontal lobe , also interconnections with hippocampus and hypthalamus

138
Q

olfactory bulb

A

where olfactory receptor cells send axons, located above and adjacent to nasal cavity in humans

139
Q

cranial nerve for olfactory

A

cranial nerve 1

140
Q

pheromonones

A

chemicals that carry signal info related to social communications bt members of the same species, gen thought to elicit innately programmed behaviors

141
Q

vomeronasal system

A

responds to pheromones

142
Q

somatosensory receptors

A

dendrites of somatosensory neurons terminate in top layers of skin and these have receptor proteins that respond to touches, pokes, delta T

143
Q

dorsal root ganglia (DRG)

A

clusters of cells near the spinal cord; this is where the cell bodies for nerve fibers are

144
Q

wilder penfield

A

discovered the first somatosensory body maps in humans undergoing brain surgery; Penfield stimulated various regions of cerebral cortex in patients undergoing surgery; listened to how patients described their associated experiences & able to build somatosensory map of the body

145
Q

somatosensory body map

A

directory of the spacial receptive fields of neurons/DRG synapses and how it is associated with a specific location of the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe

146
Q

S1

A

primary somatosensory cortex - topographic representation of somatosensory space; lesions mean loss of sensation in a particular region related to where lesion is on body map in S1

147
Q

neglect syndrome

A

when touch sensation is intact but usually ignored or not recognized until attention is specifically drawn to it

148
Q

M1 (primary motor cortex)

A

controls most motor functions, a body map of neurons that send out signals that initiate contraction of skeletal muscles; when signals propagate via spinal cord and eventually arrive at synapses with muscles

149
Q

apraxia

A

disorder in the organization of movement

150
Q

mirror neurons

A

neurons in the premotor area that are active during particular movements or when these movements are observed in another person

151
Q

cerebellum

A

involved in the regulation of movement; wrapped around the brain stem & is densely packed with neurons and neural connections (>50billion); involved in timing+coord of movement

152
Q

anosognosia

A

the lack of knowledge about one’s own disease; deny that there is something wrong with them; happens when right hemisphere lesion in stroke

153
Q

whisker barrel expansion

A

corresponding cells to amputated whisker help the cells for surrounding whiskers

154
Q

phantom limb

A

the feeling of having a limb that is no longer there; especially prevalent in people who had severe injuries on limb before amputation; found that touching face relates to touching phantom limb because of sensory map has axons for face near arms

155
Q

supplementary motor areas do what?

A

Organized + plan movements before things signalled in M1

156
Q

human genome

A

3x10^9 nucleotide base pairs coding for 21k proteins

157
Q

neural progenitor cells

A

create neurons (neurogenesis) and glial cells (gliogenesis)

158
Q

growth cone

A

growth at end of axon with extensions (filopedia) & whose growth is propelled by the cytoskeleton’s actions

159
Q

cytoskeleton

A

dynamic, made of elaborate ordered arrays of protein polymers made of (microtubles (tubulin protein) & microfilament (actin)

160
Q

microfilaments and microtubules

A

form long strands within cel that perform functions like: growth/movement of cell processes, moving materials, inserting/removing membrane proteins

161
Q

hippocampus

A

primary location where adult neurogenesis happens, 1400 new neurons added each day

162
Q

1st growth factor

A

NGF

163
Q

olfactory in brain

A

frontal lobe

164
Q

what lobe is somatosensory in

A

parietal

MCB c61 (2 decks)

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