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MCB c61 > after midterm 2 > Flashcards

after midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

possible causes of lesions

A

stroke, tumor, traumatic injury, certain brain diseases

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2
Q

types of static/structural brain imaging

A

dissection, X-ray, CT/CAT, MRI

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3
Q

X-ray

A

accidental discovery, discovered at end of 19th century, limited in ability to show 3-dimensionality or exhibit high resolution

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4
Q

CT scan

A

a bunch of x-rays and use computer technologu to reconstruct a higher resolution from the high amounts of data

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5
Q

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A

based on NMR and depends on the property of an atomic nucleus called nuclear spin; a lot of water in body and look different in different chemical environments leads to a lot of data and how make MRI

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6
Q

scale of magnetic field used for MRI mac

A

3 teslas

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7
Q

types of dynamic/functional brain imaging

A

surgical recording, ECoG, EEG, MEG, fMRI, PET

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8
Q

surgical recording

A

Wilder Penfield did brain mapping using electrical stimulation of brain and recording what happened

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9
Q

ECoG

A

electrocorticography - electrodes placed directly on the brain, used to map seizure origins in order to remove epileptogenic tissue; higher spatial res than EEG

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10
Q

EEG

A

electroencephalography - electrodes on the surface of the scalp and detects neural activity thru the origin of electrical field changes; is a method of recording some kind of summed activity in the brain

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11
Q

temporal and spatial resolution of EEG

A

spatial - cm
temporal - ms
(low area resolution but high temporal)

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12
Q

who performed first EEG recording

A

Hans Berger in the 1920s

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13
Q

who started ECoG recordings

A

Penfield (1940s-50s)

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14
Q

EEG gives average of

A

global average of billions of neurons

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15
Q

MEG

A

magnetoencephalography - measures magnetic field induced by electrical currents associated with brain activity using SQUID technology; is difficult bc have to measure very weak fields and is therefore also expensive, also computationally challenging to reconstruct data

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16
Q

SQUID technology

A

Superconducting Quantum Interference Device

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17
Q

PET scan

A

positron emission technology - tracks positron emission of radioactive chemicals in blood and locates locations of high neural activity; specifically tracks the 2 gamma rays emitted in opposite directions when positrons collide w electrons

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18
Q

spatial and temporal resolution of MEG

A

spatial - mm

temporal - ms

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19
Q

spatial and temporal resolution of PET

A

spatial - cm

temporal - sec -min

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20
Q

what device is necessary for PET

A

cyclotron in order to make radioactive atoms via accelerated collision

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21
Q

purpose of F-18 specifically

A

injected into blood, if F-18 incorporated into glucose, can follow this “glucose” and measure it

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22
Q

fMRI

A

functional MRI - series of MRI images over time by tracking BOLD signal when in regions experiencing inc neural activity
→ fMRI BOLD (blood oxygen level dependent) signal : measure of oxygen delivery to different parts of brain w/ assumption that more active parts will need more oxygen

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23
Q

nuclear spin and NMR

A

in a magnetic field, spin can align in 2 different energy states; there proton-NMR signals for various molecules that show the energy necessary to flip the spin for different molecules

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24
Q

tesla and gauss relationship

A

1 tesla = 10,000 Gauss

3 tesla is 60,000 times geomagnetic field

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25
Q

what are the PET isotopes

A

F-18, O-15, C-11

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26
Q

brain electrical oscillation ranges (delta, theta, alpha, beta, gamma)

A

Delta < 4Hz; theta: 4-8 Hz; alpha: 8-15 Hz; beta: 15-30 Hz; gamma > 30 Hz
(are associated w EEG as different frequency components)

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27
Q

spatial and temporal resolution of fMRI

A

spatial - mm

temporal - s

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28
Q

hemoglobin and its relationship w fMRI

A

hemoglobin is an oxygen carrying protein in the blood, and MRI signal changes based on whether hemoglobin has oxygen on it or not;

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29
Q

how is BOLD signal tracked

A

BOLD tracks hemoglobin (O-carrying protein in red blood cells) from oxygenated to deoxygenated form by following H’s on surrounding water

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30
Q

“dark energy”

A

brain operating at nearly same level no matter what u are externally doing –> what is ur brain doing???

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31
Q

palindrome

A

a word or phrase that reads the same backwards and forwards

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32
Q

honeybee waggle dance

A

communicate angle from sun w lil dance

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33
Q

Karl von Frisch

A

dude who studied honeybees and discovered all the honeybee stuff

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34
Q

broca’s aphasia

A

production aphasia for spoken and written language identified due to a lesion of left frontal lobe

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35
Q

wernick’s aphasia

A

comprehension aphasia for spoken and written language due to left posterior temporal/parietal lobe lesion

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36
Q

wada test

A

put to sleep one half of brain by injecting a small amount of barbiturate sedative hypnotic in one artery going to brain (are two main ones that go to different hemispheres)

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37
Q

cerebral lateralization of language

A

almost all language issues due to lesions in the left hemisphere

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38
Q

where have language in the brain

A

For right handers, (97% have in left hem, 3% have in RH)

For non-right handers (70% have in LH, 15% have in RH, 15% have in both)

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39
Q

aphasia

A

neurologically-based impairment in language function

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40
Q

location of lesions for Brocas

A

left frontal premotor area

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41
Q

location of lesions for Wernicke’s

A

posterior left temporal lobe

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42
Q

what was Wada test originally used for

A

formerly used to determine where language centers are when trying to excise seizure loci

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43
Q

what are linguistic mirror neurons

A

participate in both observing language and generating, in Broca’s area

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44
Q

corpus callosum

A

in between and connects the two hemispheres of the brain

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45
Q

Roger Sperry’s experiments were on?

A

were on consequences of severing corpus callosum (meaning 2 hemispheres of the brain r completely split)

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46
Q

Roger Sperry’s experiments were

A

Image flashed very quickly to either left or right visual space; flash a spoon on right visual field, can say what they saw b/c LH usually lang-dominant; flash spoon on left visual field, usually say dont know what it is; HOWEVER can choose spoon out of objects even if cant articulate it

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47
Q

cerebral lateralization of functions

A

right hemisphere - spatial patterns and functions, nonverbal linguistic, visual gestalt/perspective, harmony, timbre
left hemisphere - language, calculation, visual detail

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48
Q

cortical neuropil

A

an electrodynamic structure of extraordinary capacity; any area of mostly unmyelinated axons, dendrites & glial cells densely packed together; gaps <20nm, >1 mil synapses in 1mm^3 of neuropil

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49
Q

Walter Freeman and brain neurodynamics

A

A lot of EM activity → EM fields that are all pushing on eachother; very complex EM interaction; “superfluid like transitions in EEG”

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50
Q

STM vs LTM

A

short term memory/working memory has limited capacity and is transient; long term memory is initially fragile, gets to long term by consolidation (helped by rehearsal and review) and structural change

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51
Q

Karl Lashley

A

tried to localize where memory happening in the brain w rat maze experiments in the 1920s
- Once the rat memorized the brain, would lesion different parts of the brain to find when rat no longer remembered maze

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52
Q

conclusion of Karl Lashley’s rat maze experiments

A

Only correlation was that the more messed up the brain was, the more errors rats made and could not pinpoint specific spot where memory is
→ memory not localized but distributed

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53
Q

H.M (Henry Molaison)’s issues

A

Severe seizures since age 10, had surgery at age 27 in 1953, an experimental surgery to try to remove part of brain causing seizures; targeted area with amygdala and hippocampus
→ ended up removing entire hippocampus

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54
Q

result of removing HM’s hippocampus

A

WM okay and old LTM okay (remembered stuff from before had surgery)
But, could not learn any new information
(also, dec memory was gone but non-dec memory was intact)

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55
Q

conclusion from HM

A

Concluded from HM that hippocampus a hub of distributed storage and consolidation, hub of distributed activation that helps form networks of connections that represent memories

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56
Q

declarative vs non-declarative memory

A

Declarative : can explain something

Non-declarative : stuff can do but cant explain how; example is riding a bike

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57
Q

corpus callosotomy

A

disconnecting of direct neural pathways between the two hemispheres of the brain, resulting in “split brain” patients

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58
Q

drawing of shapes in split brain patients

A

drawing box with bad hand (left): more like box but squiggly whereas right wasn’t at all like box; motor control contralateral so left-handed drawing controlled by right brain; suggests R-hemi superior in global spatial analysis

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59
Q

ephaptic coupling

A

generation of local electric fields influence nearby cells

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60
Q

neural correlates of consciousness (NCC)

A

neural conductors sufficient for manifestation of conscious awareness; whole brain is imp for consciousness weee

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61
Q

correlation b/t sleep time and metabolic rate

A

large animals (slower met rate?) tend to sleep less

62
Q

circadian means

A

daily

63
Q

examples of circadian rhythms

A

sleep, body temperature, melatonin synthesis by pineal gland, cellular metabolism and neuronal activity; in plants the closing and opening of flowers and leaves

64
Q

other biological rhythms

A

annual or circannual (migratory activity of birds and animals); other periods : cycles of ovulation in female animals

65
Q

SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) in hypothalamus

A

Primary site of biological clock in vertebrate animals
SCN neurons in culture will have rhythm; SCN oscillator is coupled to the rest of the brain
- located in diencephalon (top of brainstem)
- named bc above optic chiasm
- 20k neurons with circadian periodicity of neural firing independent of brain or body

66
Q

light input for SCN

A

retinal hypothalamic pathway; 1% of RGCs (retinal ganglion cells) connect w SCN and tells circadian rhythm whether light or dark

67
Q

Circadian rhythm of melatonin secretion

A

high amounts during the night and triggers clockwise behavior in rest of body
Melatonin secretion shifted by light input to SCN

68
Q

bright light near bedtime

A

correlated with increased difficulty falling asleep; neg affects circadian timing and next morning alertness

69
Q

sleep stages - different stages in EEG appearances

A

stages 1-4 are non-REM sleep
stages 3-4 are slow wave sleep (SWS) ,10Hz
REM sleep (rapid eye movement) similar eeg to awake

70
Q

sleep stage progression

A

at beginning of night, more in SWS, later in night more in REM

71
Q

REM sleep

A

brainstem ACh neurons are active, trigger eye movements but inhibit other motor output, body is relaxed ; overall stimulation of cerebral cortex producing EEG similar to waking

72
Q

what is REM enhanced by

A

enhanced by drugs that activate ACh pathways (e.g. nicotine); bc of cholinergic nature of cortical activation during REM & the acetylcholinesterase inhibitors decrease the chemical breakdown of acetylcholine after release, increasing effect

73
Q

what kind of animals exhibit REM

A

mammals and birds; it is not known in amphibians, reptiles, fish –> suggests recent evolutionary dev, related to brain complexity

74
Q

babies and REM

A

in humans, babies spend a lot of time in REM sleep (~50% vs ~20% in adults)

75
Q

REM and dreams

A

REM correlated w vivid dreaming which is likely related to robust cerebral cortical activity during REM

76
Q

functions of sleep

A

Memory storage and consolidation (strengthening) of new learning is greatly improved by sleeping (majority of consolidation appears to take place during sleep)
Also, sleep “refreshes” brain so can learn new info
Deprivation of sleep triggered or exacerbates psychological problems

77
Q

list of sleep problems

A

insomnia, apnea, narcolepsy, sleep paralysis, sleep walking, REM behavior disorder

78
Q

insomnia

A

trouble sleeping

79
Q

apnea

A

stopped breathing while sleeping which causes disrupted sleep

80
Q

narcolepsy

A

non-restful NREM sleep, extreme daytime sleepiness caused by irregular sleep cycling between REM/NREM, associated with abnormalities related to orexin, a neuropeptide associated with maintaining wakefulness

81
Q

sleep paralysis

A

partially awaken while in REM and feel paralyzed and hallucinating

82
Q

REM behavior disorder

A

muscle movements intrude into REM –> flailing

83
Q

in what stage does sleepwalking usually occur

A

NREM sleep (stages 3 and 4)

84
Q

chronic sleep deficiency

A

biggest sleep related problem; leads to suboptimal performance, inc risk of accidents, probable long term adverse effects on health

85
Q

what contributes to good sleep hygiene

A 
pleasant sleep environment
avoiding stimulants late in the day
no alc close to bedtime
avoiding heavy food close to bedtime
avoiding bright screen devices before bedtime
daytime exercise, even if minimal
86
Q

why can alcohol near bedtime be problematic

A

bc gets metabolized quickly in the body (~4 hours) so ppl wake up and cant go back to sleep

87
Q

risks associated with pharmaceutical sleeping pills

A

can have very bad side effects like black out which is doing stuff that that u don’t remember doing; also leads quickly to dependence

88
Q

synesthesia

A

condition characterized by unusual blending of perceptions between different sensory modalities

89
Q

what is more likely to be stored in long term memory

A

things that are emotional or significant, newer memories are more frail; undergo consolidation to become more stable

90
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

inability to recall events from before the trauma

91
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

more common, cant recall events after onset of amnesia

92
Q

amnesia

A

pathological memory problems associated with injury or trauma

93
Q

dementia

A

neurological condition characterized by global loss of cognitive abilities

94
Q

vascular dementia

A

associated with accumulation of cell damaged related to impaired blood circulation

95
Q

Alzheimer’s

A

presence of senile plaques (extracellular deposits of polypeptide beta amylase) and neurofibrillary tangles (aggregates of tau protein, which stabilizes and assembles microtubules)

96
Q

sedative hyp affect on memory

A

can produce temporary anterograde amnesia (blackout); heavy alc use can cause perm memory impairment

97
Q

midazadam/Versed effect on memory

A

given to patients under partial anesthetization to impair persons ability to remember uncomfortable parts of the surgery

98
Q

other drugs related to memory impairment

A

Cannabis, cholesterol-lowering drugs, opiods, older antihistamines; many of these are commonly used on elderly patients

99
Q

nootropic

A

drugs claimed to improve cognition and memory, include caffeine, nicotine, meth

100
Q

Hebb

A

suggested that networks of many neurons extending throughout cortex rep info stored in memory; large portions of brain work together to form memory

101
Q

aplysia california

A

sea slug : retracts gills quickly when the siphon is touched; study by Kandel
trigger releases serotonin → activates GPCRs → cAMP → PKA → closing K+ leak channels → Ca 2+ opened longer → releases more NT
Studies indicate that up to ~1 hour after stimulus, faster response to same stimulus; if done multiple times last up to several days
Faster response is due to the serotonin activating more cAMP, which transcripts certain genes and elevates the NT responses

102
Q

free running rhythm

A

Orgs will undergo circadian rhythm even if no environmental cues, but last slightly longer than 24 hours

103
Q

Research fruitfly circadian rhythm

A

by researching PER: the suppression of PER transcription reduced PER production, which reduced PER suppression; 24 hr cycle

104
Q

melanospin

A

the photosensitive (don’t need rods/cones) ganglion cells that nerve axons connect to SCN

105
Q

jet lag

A

when endogenous circadian rhythm doesn’t match the environment

106
Q

3 activities that human sleep studies measure

A

brain activity (w EEG), muscle movement, eye movement

107
Q

NREM stages

A

divided into 4 stages with 4th being lowest freq of EEG activity

108
Q

lucid dreaming

A

aware of dreaming while still asleep; goal of some spiritual traditions

109
Q

what is mind

A

collection of mental states (thoughts, feelings, perceptions)

110
Q

what do we think of as consciousness

A

awareness of self

111
Q

mind body problem

A

how is mind related to physical processes in the brain and body

112
Q

sentience

A

capacity to have experience of what it is like to be

113
Q

feelings vs emotions

A

Feelings are the mental component of emotions; emotions= feeling +somatic qualities (changes in body, outward signs)

114
Q

emotions vs mood

A

emotions are spontaneous, unbidden, and arise quickly whereas moods are usually more prolonged

115
Q

why do we have feelings/emotions

A

social communication, provide for cooperative social systems

116
Q

other aspects of emotion besides facial expression

A

changes in heart rate, blood pressure, skin temp, tone of voice, body pressure, hormone release

117
Q

“Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals”

A

a book Darwin wrote about emotion, he studied facial expressions; he also said emotions not unique to humans

118
Q

what NS is vagus nerve part of

A

parasympathetic NS

119
Q

vagal tone

A

resting vagus nerve activity, relaxed emotional style;
characterized by:
- resilience when encountering neg emotions
- more freq experience of positive emotions
- greater prosocial expression
- improved physical health

120
Q

electroceuticals

A 
do vagus nerve stimulation externally
include TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation), tDCS, tACS
121
Q

thoughts vs feelings

A

thoughts have linguistic component (inner dialogue or describable images)
feelings - non linguistic and intuitive quality

122
Q

Ekman

A

compared interpretation of facial expressions across different cultures
Evolution: basic emotions universal, even in sheltered communities
Constructivism: cultural factors “specify who can show emotion to whom & when”

123
Q

primary function of facial expressions

A

communicate emotion to others

124
Q

vagus nerve (aka CN 10)

A

elaborate connection between brain & large region of body’s core (including parasympathetic nerves: heart, lungs, etc); fiber consists of many axons, some myelinated, carry signals both directions, but >50% body → brain or afferent

125
Q

afferent vs efferent

A

afferent : body –> brain

efferent : brain –> body

126
Q

amygdala

A

group of nuclei at base of temporal lobe heavily connected with sensory areas of cerebral cortex & brainstem neurons; involved w perception of emotional expressions (esp fear, anger); involved in signaling hypothalmus to start stress resp

127
Q

hypothalamus and hormones

A

produces neuropeptide that regulates release of systemic hormones from nearby pituitary gland; releases oxytocin & vasopressin into blood as hormones;
Both O & V act at specific GCPRs when released into extracellular space w/in hypothalamus & cerebrospinal fluid to diffuse throughout CNS; axons also release into brainstem, hippocampus, amgdala; associated w/ prosocial actions (parental, trust, & cooperation)

128
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormones

A

trigger adrenal glans to release cortisol, part of body response to stress/threat

129
Q

oxytocin

A

works on female uterus during childbirth to induce contractions and stimulates production and release of milk

130
Q

vasopressin

A

acts on kidneys to slow transfer of water from blood to urine

131
Q

reward pathways

A

Olds discovered electrically stimulating certain brain regions in rats induced rats to execute behaviors to generate same stimulation

132
Q

best known reward pathway

A

dopaminergic neurons in ventral tegmental area (pons) projecting to nuclear accumbens and medial prefontal cortex; highly complex and activates with enjoyable behaviors

133
Q

serotonin

A

associated w mediation of positive mood; connection largely from neurochem of drugs used to treat mood disorders

134
Q

depression

A

prolonged and dysfunctional dysphoric mood; malignant melancholy

135
Q

how do clinical anti-dep meds like MAOIs and TCAs work

A

increase effect of norepinephrine and serotonin

136
Q

MAOIs

A

monoamine oxidase inhibitors -inhibits enzyme deactivating norep, sero

137
Q

TCA

A

tricyclic antidepressants - blocks/slows uptake of norep, sero

138
Q

pro-social emotions

A

playful, love, gratitude; theorize most important in human behavior

139
Q

mindfulness meditation

A

training & practice of bringing one’s awareness to a focus of attention; associated with manifestation of prosocial emotion & emotional balance

140
Q

William James

A

Science of Mind
imp to study behavior–> psychology
imp to study biological underpinnings –> neuroscience
imp to study mental experience –> introspection, phenomenology (often hear this is subjective, “cant do science on it”)

141
Q

Rene Descartes and mind-body dualism

A

mind-body dualism –> try to understand body/nature as a kind of machine

142
Q

George Berkeley and idealism

A

posited we don’t know anthing except our own thoughts (idealism/mentalism)

143
Q

speculations on why consciousness exists

A

→ emergent property of complex neurocircuitry, perhaps an epiphenomenon
→ evolution: awareness of experience produces adaptive advantage for survival?
→ is a fundamental property of the universe, along the lines of matter and energy

144
Q

Cambridge Declaration of Consciousness

A

humans aint unique in possessing neurological substrates to generate consciousness
(deep brain structures assoc w emotion in humans are present in animals, animals also have similar pharmacological manipulations, problem solving, REM, etc)

145
Q

mirror recognition

A

a test for self awareness if can recognize self in mirror

146
Q

neural correlates of consciousness (NCC)

A

the way forward
→ continued neuroscientific investigations
→ subcellular molecular ordering
→ fundamental physics/biology/mind interface
→ powerful psychoactive drug effects
→ placebo effects
→ near death experiences/ dying and death
→ anomalous phenomena
→ refined introspection

147
Q

paradigm shifts

A

Copernicus: Heliocentric Cosmos - sun center of things
Einstein : relativity of space and time
Quantum physics: wave particle duality, measurement and indeterminism
Darwin: biological evolution
Coming soon? Perhaps the biggest one so far abt mental experience and consciousness

148
Q

reductionism

A

understanding living orgs thru framework of physical science (can it account for everything? also quantum is weird

149
Q

quantum measurement problem

A

measuring changes system, Heisenberg uncertainty principle

150
Q

SETI

A

search for extraterrestrial life

151
Q

physicalism

A

describing reality thru physics; metaphysical framework of contemporary science
(requires explanations of mind, mental experience in terms of matter)
explanatory gap - difference between physical and subjective

MCB c61 (2 decks)

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