Midterm 2 Flashcards
working memory
AKA short-term memory. Works with or uses information to address a particular situation or question. Lasts from a few seconds to a minute or two.
long-term memory
Systems that are capable of encoding, storing, and retrieving information over periods of time. Divided into implicit and explicit memory.
implicit memory
AKA non declarative memory. The kinds of memories you can’t demonstrate verbally that you have. Involves skills and learning that can occur without conscious awareness
explicit memory
AKA declarative memory. Information that can be consciously recalled and expressed. Divided into semantic and episodic memory
procedural memory
A type of implicit memory. Memories for how to perform skills or habits. Major brain region: striatum
priming
A type of implicit memory. Past experiences influence or increase the response to a given sensory stimulus (recognizing an incomplete drawing of an elephant as an elephant). Major brain region: cortex
classical conditioning
A type of associative learning, implicit memory. Pairs an unconditioned stimulus with an unconditioned response through a conditioned stimulus.
operant conditioning
A type of associative learning, implicit memory. Pairs a behavior with a consequence, altering the frequency of the behavior.
non-associative learning
A type of implicit memory. Long-term changes in reflex pathways in the nervous system. Includes habituation and sensitization.
habituation
Repeated exposure to the same stimulus gradually reduces the response
sensitization
The response to a stimulus increases following exposure to an especially strong stimulus
motor conditioned/skeletal responses
A type of implicit memory. Example: eye blink in response to tones predicting a puff of air. Major brain region: cerebellum
emotional conditioned responses
A type of implicit memory. Example: autonomic responses like increased heart rate. Major brain region: amygdala
semantic memory
A type of explicit memory. Memories of facts.
episodic memory
A type of explicit memory. Memories for past autobiographical events.
familiarity
A vague sense of emotional content, without accompanying context.
recollection
A complete recollection involves rich recreation of place, time, surroundings, actions, and events.
Henry Molaison
A patient who had his hippocampus removed. Was then unable to form new episodic memories (anterograde amnesia)
anterograde amnesia
The inability to form new episodic memories. Can’t remember what you’ve done.
retrograde amnesia
The inability to retrieve episodic memories of events that occurred for a certain period of time before a brain injury.
place cells
Neurons in the hippocampus that only fire when the organism is located in a particular place in its local environment.
medial temporal lobe
Major brain region for explicit memory.
spatial memory
The part of memory responsible for recording information about one’s environment and spatial orientation
place field
The region of the external environment that elicits the activity of a particular place cell when the animal enters the region
spontaneous confabulation
Happens in brain injury patients. They generate confabulations without cues, and are convinced their fantasies are real.
confabulation
Creating a shifting version of reality that does not currently exist and acting as if they believe fully in this reality
provoked confabulation
Happens when we are pressed for the details of a memory beyond our ability to recall them accurately
ventral medial prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex
When aneurysms in these areas rupture and cause damage, patients may have problems suppressing irrelevant memories
misattribution
tendency to attribute an idea or memory to the wrong source
suggestibility
the idea that false memories can be created by providing a fictitious suggestion about a past experience and then encouraging the person to elaborate upon the false memory by trying to recall it in detail
bias
How our current knowledge and beliefs can create distortions in what we recall about the past
neural/synaptic plasticity
the ability of our neurons to change the strength of their synaptic connections to other neurons depending on their activity
Hebbian learning
A mechanism for learning which states that the connection between two neurons will be strengthened if the presynaptic cell consistency fires at the same time as the postsynaptic cell
long-term potentiation (LTP)
long-lasting increases in synaptic strength that are induced when the activity of the presynaptic cell consistently activates along with the postsynaptic cell
NMDA receptors
A type of glutamate receptor. Are usually blocked by magnesium ions, until a high-frequency synaptic input (incoming Na+ from AMPA receptors) unblocks them, allowing Ca 2+ to flow in
AMPA receptors
A type of glutamate receptor. Allows Na+ to flow into postsynaptic neuron, depolarizing it and opening up NMDA receptors
consolidation
Turning short-term memories into long-term memories
reconsolidation
When a memory is recalled, it must be re-consolidated into long-term memory again. Interfering with this process can eliminate an established memory
electroencephalography (EEG)
A noninvasive technology for recording the electrical fields on the scalp using external electrodes. The primary technology used to study brain activity during sleep.
REM
Rapid Eye Movement. A stage of sleep in which dreams occur and the body is paralyzed (aside from small facial muscles), but the eyes exhibit rapid movement. Brain waves at high frequencies, low amplitude, resembles waking a little bit.
slow wave sleep (SWS)
Stage 3 of sleep, the deepest stage of non-REM. Associated with the basal forebrain. Brain waves are low frequency, high amplitude (synchronized)
sleep cycles
We move through the stages of sleep several times a night. We don’t re-enter stage 3 in the second half of the night, and we spend more time in REM in the second half of the night.
ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO)
A region of the hypothalamus that promotes sleep by inhibiting the arousal network of the brain
arousal network
A network in the brain that maintains alertness and wakefulness. Includes the locus coerulus (norepinephrine), raphae nucleus (serotonin), tuberomammillary nucleus (histamine) and acetycholinergic neurons (acetylcholine_
PGO waves
Brain waves that originate in the pons, go to the lateral gesticulate nucleus, then to the occipital cortex. Their appearance comes right before REM sleep, and their density correlates with eye movement. Triggered by aceytlcholinergic neurons
circadian rhythms
A natural internal rhythm (of sleep/wake) that runs on an approximately 24-hour cycle
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
A region in the hypothalamus in which cells maintain their own 24-hour clock, and serve as the master clock for the body’s circadian rhythms
pineal gland
A gland which produces and releases melatonin. Receives signals from the SCN
melatonin
A hormone produced and released by the pineal gland, the “darkness” hormone. Influences sleep and wake
four sleep theories
- Restoration
- Survival advantage
- Simulate rare situations
- Information processing
rehearsal
Memories need to form in two stages, the first during the event and again by a consolidation period in which the experience becomes long-term memory. The consolidation stage requires sleep. During REM, it is hypothesized that the information replayed during sleep determines what we remember later.
forgetting
It is hypothesized that REM sleep helps us forget stuff so we don’t overload or form inappropriate connections and learning
insight
It is hypothesized that sleep helps us restructure and further understand our experiences
limbic system
Dreaming depends on a neural network of the limbic system
activation-synthesis model
Proposes that random activity in the brainstem is sent to the cortex, which tries to turn it into motor output. But since the body is paralyzed, the brain tries to synthesize an explanation, which becomes a dream
consequences of sleep deprivation
STRESS, cognitive impairment, memory lapses, amnesia, impaired moral judgement, irritability, hallucination, ADHD symptoms, low reaction time, tremors, aches, type 2 diabetes, growth suppression, obesity, variable heart rate, heart disease, poor immune system
microsleeps
Brief sleep periods (seconds or less) that occur after severe sleep deprivation. Can be dangerous
insomnia
Inability to get enough sleep to feel rested. A continuous state of hyperarousal
over-the-counter sleep aids vs benzodiazepines
In patients with insomnia, over-the-counter sleep aids like lavender and melatonin don’t usually help, but benzodiazepines do work
benzodiazepines
A medication used to help people with insomnia. Promote GABA activity
hypersomnia
Excessive sleepiness such that naps are taken frequently, often at inappropriate times
narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and cataplexy
cataplexy
Sudden muscle weakness experienced by people with narcolepsy
orexin
A hormone that promotes wakefulness by stabilizing the sleep/wake switch in the waking state. Patients with narcolepsy have lower levels of orexin
NREM parasomias
Actions performed during (non-REM) sleep that are not under voluntary control. Includes sleep walking and night terrors
REM parasomnias
Actions performed during REM sleep that are not under voluntary control. Includes REM sleep behavior disorder and sleep paralysis
REM sleep behavior disorder
When sleepers are not paralyzed during REM and therefore act out their dreams
