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PSYCH 202 > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

cognitive neuroscience

A

The study of how the brain processes information, builds memories, navigates decisions, etc.

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2
Q

emergent properties

A

Characteristics of a system that do not belong to any individual component

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3
Q

connectional methods

A

Methods we use to understand connections between regions of the brain. Examples include tracking tracers throughout the NS, and diffusion tensor imaging

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4
Q

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

A

A connectional method where magnetic resonance is used to trace water as it diffuses throughout the brain along tracts of neurons, giving us maps of the tracts

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5
Q

correlational methods

A

Methods that involve making observations of brain activity while an individual performs some type of behavior.

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6
Q

microelectrodes

A

Small electrodes surgically implanted into the brain that allow researchers to measure the electrical activity of neurons or to stimulate target brain regions

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7
Q

microdialysis

A

A technique for sampling the chemical properties of the extracellular fluid surrounding neurons via a tiny probe in the brain

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8
Q

electroencephalography (EEG)

A

A noninvasive technology for recording the electrical fields on the scalp using external electrodes. High temporal resolution, poor spatial resolution

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9
Q

magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

A noninvasive technique to monitor electrical activity in the brain by placing sensitive magnetic detectors on the scalp, good for use with small kids

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10
Q

positron emission tomography (PET)

A

A research technique that detects radioactively-labeled substances (like water or glucose). Good spatial resolution, poor temporal resolution

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11
Q

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

A brain-imaging technique that uses MRI to measure changes in blood flow/blood oxygenation associated with brain activity. Good spatial resolution, poor temporal resolution.

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12
Q

lesion methods

A

One of the oldest approaches to causal inference in mapping out brain behavior; involves studying the effects of lesions (damaged areas) in the brain. Study patients with traumatic brain injuries.

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13
Q

stimulation methods

A

A method which involves actively stimulating a brain region or neural circuit and then observing the effects on cognition and behavior

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14
Q

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A

A safe way to create reversible, “virtual” lesions. Uses a coil with an electric current to create a rapidly-changing magnetic field, which allows us to modify brain activitu where the coil is

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15
Q

anchoring bias

A

Human tendency to become overly influenced by a single observation, usually the first one (“the anchor”), so it drowns out or distorts subsequent info to make it more consistent with the anchor

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16
Q

confirmation bias

A

Human tendency to seek out or emphasize information that fits with our own beliefs, and ignoring information that conflicts with them

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17
Q

scientific method

A

observe, make a hypothesis, make predictions, test

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18
Q

central nervous system

A

The brain and spinal cord

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19
Q

optogenetics

A

A new technique to manipulate the activity of specific subsets of neurons. Insert genes, fibre-optic light to stimulate brain activity

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20
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

Connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body

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21
Q

forebrain

A

The anterior of three zones in the developing nervous system. Composed of the telencephalon and diencephalon

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22
Q

midbrain

A

The middle of three zones in the developing nervous system, becomes midbrain in the brain. Responsible for defensive and reproductive behaviors; visual and auditory reflexes, and is a neurotransmitter source

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23
Q

hindbrain

A

The posterior of three zones in the developing nervous system; composed of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

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24
Q

telencephalon

A

Composed of cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system

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25
Q

diencephalon

A

Composed of the thalamus and hypothalamus

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26
Q

rostral

A

towards the front

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27
Q

caudal

A

towards the back

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28
Q

dorsal

A

towards the top

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29
Q

ventral

A

towards the bottom

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30
Q

anterior

A

towards the front

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31
Q

posterior

A

towards the back

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32
Q

superior

A

towards the top

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33
Q

inferior

A

towards the bottom

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34
Q

medial

A

towards the middle

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35
Q

lateral

A

towards the side

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36
Q

ipsilateral

A

on the same side

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37
Q

contralateral

A

on the opposite side

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38
Q

sensory neurons

A

Have receptors in the skin, muscles, and joints; convey sensory input

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39
Q

motor neurons

A

Extend to the muscles, stimulate muscles to contract

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40
Q

somatic nervous system

A

Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles and skin

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41
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

Controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands. Divided into sympathetic NS and parasympathetic NS

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42
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

“Fight-or-flight” response system; inhibits digestion, speeds up heart rate, increases blood pressure

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43
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

“Rest-and-digest” response system; promotes digestion, slows heart rate, muscles relax

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44
Q

brainstem

A

Most posterior region of the brain, communicates between spinal cord and anterior structures of the NS. Composed of medulla, pons, and midbrain.

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45
Q

medulla

A

Involved in involuntary functions like breathing and blood flow

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46
Q

pons

A

Relays signals between cerebellum and the cerebrum; involved in sleep/wake

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47
Q

cerebellum

A

Means “little brain,” involved in coordinated movements, balance, associative learning. Has more neurons than the rest of our brain

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48
Q

superior colliculum

A

bump in the midbrain responsible for visual reflexes

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49
Q

inferior colliculum

A

bump in the midbrain responsible for auditory reflexes

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50
Q

reticular formation

A

structure in the midbrain that regulates sleep/wake

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51
Q

locus coeruleus

A

Region in midbrain; releases norepinephrine

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52
Q

substantia nigra

A

Region in midbrain; releases dopamine

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53
Q

raphae nuclei

A

Region in midbrain; releases serotonin

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54
Q

hypothalamus

A

Part of the diencephalon of the forebrain. Motivates critical drives (fighting, fleeing, feeding, fucking)

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55
Q

thalamus

A

Part of the diencephalon of the forebrain. Relays sensory information to the cortex.

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56
Q

pituitary gland

A

A major endocrine gland which is below and connected to the hypothalamus

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57
Q

cerebrum

A

the most superior portion of the central nervous system; includes left and right hemispheres and subcortical structures like thalamus and basal ganglia

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58
Q

cerebral cortex

A

AKA gray matter; the outermost covering of the brain. Primarily composed of cell bodies and dendrites

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59
Q

gyrus/gyri

A

What we call the bumps on the cerebral cortex

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60
Q

sulcus/sulci

A

What we call the grooves in the cerebral cortex

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61
Q

corpus callosum

A

Myelinated axons that connect the two hemispheres of the brain; primary purpose is to convey information between hemispheres

62
Q

frontal lobe

A

The region of cortex at the front of the brain; involved in motor control. Includes primary motor cortex, prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex.

63
Q

primary motor cortex

A

A long strop of areas in the frontal lobe that controls movements of individual body parts

64
Q

prefrontal cortex

A

Area in the frontal lobe that assembles elaborate sequences of movement, also important for goal planning and cognition

65
Q

orbitofrontal cortex

A

Area in the frontal lobe above the eyes, omportant in setting priorities

66
Q

parietal lobe

A

The region of the cortex on top and towards the back of the brain; involved in touch. Contains primary somatosensory cortex

67
Q

primary somatosensory cortex

A

Area in the parietal lobe; handles sensory input from skin, muscles, and joints of individual body parts

68
Q

occipital lobe

A

Region of the cortex behind the parietal lobe at the back of the brain; involved in vision/ Contains primary visual cortex.

69
Q

primary visual cortex

A

Area in the occipital lobe where visual information is first processed

70
Q

temporal lobe

A

Bottom-most region of the cortex; involved in hearing. Contains the primary auditory cortex, fusiform gyrus

71
Q

primary auditory cortex

A

Area in the temporal lobe which receives and processes auditory information

72
Q

fusiform gyrus

A

Area in the temporal lobe which helps a ventral visual pathway in the identification, categorization , and evaluation of visual inputs

73
Q

insula

A

A region of cortex hidden inside the lateral sulcus which represents internal sensations of bodily organs and states like pain, hunger, arousal, fatigue

74
Q

basal ganglia

A

A set of closely interconnected gray matter nuclei. Form loops with areas in the frontal cortex. Important in movement, eye movement, thinking, and reward

75
Q

dorsal striatum

A

The outermost structure of the basal ganglia, includes caudate and putamen nuclei

76
Q

ventral striatum

A

Region in the ventral part of the basal ganglia, contains the nucleus accumbens; important in reward and addiction

77
Q

limbic system

A

A collection of structures surrounding the brain stem, important for motivation and emotion. Primary structures are the amygdala and hippocampus

78
Q

amygdala

A

Structure of the limbic system. Involved in rapid evaluation of sensory input; emotional responses to external stimuli (especially fear)

79
Q

hippocampus

A

Structure of the limbic system; primary roles are spatial navigation and episodic memory

80
Q

anterior cingulate cortex

A

The anterior portion of the cingulate gyrus; involved in motor control and decision making

81
Q

ventricles

A

four cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid

82
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A

A fluid which circulates through the ventricles and over the surface of the brain and spinal cord; helps protect the brain and maintain a stable chemical environment for neurons

83
Q

neuron

A

A cell in the nervous system specialized for quickly transmitting electrical signals to other neurons. We have ~85 billion

84
Q

membrane

A

Outer covering of a cell which separates it from the outside environment

85
Q

dendrites

A

Long, branching extensions from the cell body of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons

86
Q

soma

A

The cell body of a neuron

87
Q

nucleus (of a cell)

A

Control center in the cell body which regulates cell activity

88
Q

axon

A

A long, slender extension from the soma of a neuron that conducts signals rapidly across long distances, away from the neuron

89
Q

axon terminals

A

Branches at the end of the axon, from which neurotransmitters are released

90
Q

afferent

A

What we call neurons that convey info INTO the nervous system; sensory neurons

91
Q

efferent

A

What we call neurons that convey info OUT of the nervous system; motor neurons

92
Q

multipolar neuron

A

Neurons with 3 or more extensions coming off the cell body

93
Q

bipolar neuron

A

Neurons with just one dendrite and one axon connected to the cell body

94
Q

monopolar/unipolar neurons

A

Neurons with a single extension that leaves the cell body (this extension may split in 2 directions)

95
Q

glia/glial cells

A

Non-neuron nervous system cells that perform a range of supporting functions. At least as many, probably many more, glia than neurons

96
Q

oligodendrocyte

A

A type of glial cell. Their extensions act as myelin for cells in the central nervous system, wrapping around the axons of neurons

97
Q

schwann cell

A

A type of glial cell. Act as segments of myelin for cells in the peripheral nervous system

98
Q

myelin

A

A fatty substance on axons which allow electrical signals to reach the ends of neurons faster. Its presence is what creates the appearance of “white matter”

99
Q

nodes of Ranvier

A

An exposed part of an axon without myelin covering it; necessary in helping action potentials reach down the axon quickly

100
Q

astrocyte

A

A type of glial cell. Primary role is to nourish neurons by bringing in nutrients from the blood, and removing waste products

101
Q

microglia

A

A type of glial cell. Primary role is cleaning around neurons by engulfing and destroying debris.

102
Q

Loewi

A

A scientist who discovered that neurons communicate chemically at synapses. He soaked a frog heart in a solution, and then stimulated a nerve to slow its heart rate. He then soaked a different frog heart in the same solution, and its heart rate slowed down too.

103
Q

synaptic cleft

A

The space between pre- and post-synaptic cells

104
Q

synaptic vesicles

A

Packages inside the presynaptic neuron which hold neurotransmitters before binding with the membrane and releasing them into the synaptic cleft

105
Q

acetylcholine

A

The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the PNS. Causes muscle contractions. This is the neurotransmitter that Loewi discovered.

106
Q

monoamines

A

A class of neurotransmitter that includes dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and melatonin

107
Q

dopamine

A

A monoamine neurotransmitter. Involved in reward system, drugs, motor control, cognition, schizophrenia

108
Q

epinephrine

A

A monoamine neurotransmitter. AKA adrenaline, fight-or-flight

109
Q

norepinephrine

A

A monoamine neurotransmitter. Regulates arousal, alertness, attention

110
Q

serotonin

A

A monoamine neurotransmitter.. Regulates appetite, sleep, and mood

111
Q

melatonin

A

A monoamine neurotransmitter. Involved in sleep and wake

112
Q

glutamate

A

An amino acid neurotransmitter. Most common excitatory NT in the CNS

113
Q

GABA

A

An amino acid neurotransmitter. Most common inhibitory NT in the CNS

114
Q

receptors

A

Specialized proteins in the membrane (of a postsynaptic cell), which neurotransmitters bind to

115
Q

ionotropic receptors

A

Receptors that, when activated by a neurotransmitter, open a channel in the cell membrane to allow ions to enter or leave the cell

116
Q

metabotropic receptors

A

Receptors that, when activated by a neurotransmitter, cause changes inside the cell by a cascade of signals

117
Q

degradation

A

A mechanism for removing neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft: specific enzymes break apart the neurotransmitters

118
Q

reuptake

A

A mechanism for removing neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft: special protein transporters in the membrane will selectively pull NTs back inside the cell presynaptically, postsynaptically, or into neighboring cells

119
Q

transporters

A

Special proteins in the membrane of a cell that complete reuptake of neurotransmitters

120
Q

membrane potential

A

The difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell. In a neuron at rest, membrane potential is at -70 millivolts, meaning the inside is more negative than the outside

121
Q

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

A

When the inside of the cell becomes more positive by positive ions flowing into the cell

122
Q

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

A

When the inside of the cell becomes more negative, either by bringing in more anions or allowing cations to leave

123
Q

agonists

A

Molecules that mimic or extend the activity of a neurotransmitter

124
Q

antagonists

A

Molecules that decrease the activity of a neurotransmitter

125
Q

action potential

A

A rapid change/reversal in a neuron’s membrane potential that is used to transmit information from the cell body to the presynaptic terminal

126
Q

temporal summation

A

The process by which EPSPs or IPSPs that occur at slightly different times will add up at the soma. One presynaptic neuron releases NTs many times over a period of time

127
Q

spatial summation

A

The process by which EPSPs and IPSPs that arrive on different branches of the dendrites will converge at the soma. Multiple presynaptic neurons release NTs at the same time

128
Q

depolarization

A

A state in which the electrical charge across the cell membrane is reduced, during the course of an action potential or during communication across a synapse

129
Q

threshold

A

The membrane potential that must be reached for a neuron to generate an action potential; usually at -55 mV

130
Q

axon hillock

A

Where the axon connects to the cell body, the location where the action potential is generated

131
Q

sodium ions

A

Na+ ions. When the neuron is at rest, there is a lot of Na+ outside the cell, not as much inside.

132
Q

potassium ions

A

K+ ions. When the neuron is at rest, there is a lot of K+ inside the cell, not as much outside

133
Q

voltage-gated ion channels

A

Ion channels that allow only certain ions to pass through the membrane. Open when the membrane potential reaches a certain value.

134
Q

concentration gradient

A

The difference in concentration between ions outside vs inside the cell. Ions move down the gradient from areas of higher concentration to lower concentration.

135
Q

electrical gradient

A

The difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell. Ions will move down the gradient to areas with their opposite charge.

136
Q

refractory period

A

The time following the action potential where voltage-gated ion channels are inactivated and unable to generate another action potential

137
Q

saltatory conduction

A

The propagation of an action potential along an myelinated axon, in which the action potential “jumps” along the axon from one node of Ranvier to the next.

138
Q

neurotransmitter release

A

When the action potential reaches the end of the axon, Ca2+, which is highly concentrated outside the cell and wants to flow in, comes in through now-open voltage-gated channels. The calcium interacts with vesicles holding NTs, making them sticky and bind to the axon terminal’s wall, where they empty the NTs into the synaptic cleft.

139
Q

lidocaine mechanisms

A

Lidocaine blocks voltage-gated Na+ channels, preventing action potentials from spreading along the axon. When lidocaine is administered, electrical signals are blocked at their site of origin, preventing pain sensations from arising.

140
Q

golgi stains

A

A stain that allows us to see the shapes and lengths of neurons. Only some cells take up this stain.

141
Q

nissl stains

A

A stain that allows us to see the densities of cells in an area. Stains material in the nucleus of the cell; can’t see axons or dendrites

142
Q

substantia nigra

A

A group of dark-colored cells in the midbrain that are a major source of dopamine

143
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

A motor disorder caused by the progressive loss of dopamine cells in the substantia nigra

144
Q

tract

A

A group of axons in the CNS

145
Q

nerve

A

A group of axons in the PNS

146
Q

nucleus

A

A group of cell bodies in the CNS

147
Q

ganglion

A

A group of cell bodies in the PNS

148
Q

Henry Molaison

A

A famous patient whose doctor removed his hippocampus to stop seizures; lost his ability to form new episodic memories

149
Q

spatial resolution

A

where the brain is active

150
Q

temporal resolution

A

When the brain is active

151
Q

Causal inference

A

Does this (in the brain) cause that (behavior)?

PSYCH 202 (3 decks)

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