midterm 2 Flashcards
perception
a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment
attribution theory
- our behavior/judgments based on our perception of reality, not reality itself
- perception of reality is driven by our own assumptions of internal/external factors
fundamental attribution error (others)
- we underestimate external factors and overestimate internal factors when making judgments about others
- blame people first, not the situation
self-serving bias (ourselves)
- we tend to attribute our own success to internal factors, and attribute our failures to external factors
- it is our success but not our fault when we fail
primary effect (first impression effect)
first impressions have a powerful impact on our assessment of others
selective perception
judgments based on our own interests, background, experience and attitudes (aka the similar to me effect)
halo effect
drawing an impression on the basis of a single characteristic
contrast effect
evaluation of another based upon comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics
self-fulfilling prophecy bias
once we have made a judgment about a person, we look to find information that reinforces our belief
profiling
judging another on the basis of that person’s group/culture/ethnicity
biases in judging others
primary effect selective perception halo effect contrast effects self-fulfilling prophecy bias profiling
biases in decision making
overconfidence bias anchoring bias confirmation bias availability bias escalation of commitment randomness error winner's curse hindsight bias
overconfidence bias
believing too much in our own ability
example: gambling
anchoring bias
using early, initial information to make subsequent decision
example: negotiations
confirmation bias
selecting and using only facts that support our decision
example: political leanings
availability bias
emphasizing information readily at hand
example: fears (shark attacks)
escalation of commitment
increasing commitment to a decision due to a sunk time/cost, despite evidence decision is wrong
-example: relationships, investments
randomless error
creating meaning out of random events
example: conspiracies
winner’s curse
highest bidder pays too much due to value overestimation
example: auction purchases
hindsight bias
believing a past outcome could have been easily predicted
-example: investment decisions
how long does it take us to make judgments on trustworthiness, competence and likeability
1/10th of a second
how long does it take for decisions to not really change
4-5 minutes into the interview
how many encounters does it take to change a negative first impression
8 subsequent encounters
what does employee performance typically reflect
leader’s preconceptions about the employee’s capabilities
performance evaluations
- often reflect the reviewer’s perceptions of anothers job performance
- teammates will often work to protect their own or sabotage opponents
how many positive customer experiences does it take to make up for one bad one
12
how much more likely does a customer talk about a bad vs good experience
twice
how much more costly is it to attract a new customer than to retain an existing one
6-7 times more costly
golden rule of PR
perception is reality
motivation
the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal
3 components of motivation
intensity
direction
persistence
early (historical) motivation theories
based on evaluation of employee needs (ex: maslow)
modern motivation theories
more empirical driven, more applicable
motivation is NOT the same as job satisfaction
and is RELATED to employee engagement
the gallup 12
?
maslow’s hierarchy of needs
best known theory of motivation (bottom to top) -physiological needs -safety and security -love and belonging -self-esteem -self actualiztation
order of needs
-they must be satisfied in succession
the lower 2 are external and the higher 3 are internal
applying maslow
companies use it for job satisfaction, marketing and product design
product design
- functionality
- reliability
- usability
- proficiency
- creativity
classical/historical? theories of motivation
McGregors
Herzberg
McClelland
McGregor’s Theory of X & Y
people either theory x (basically negative) or theory y (positive)
Herzberg’s two factor theory
- hygiene factors (extrinsic) do not motivate; absence causes dissatisfaction
- motivators (intrinsic) motivate; presence causes satisfaction
hygiene factors
company policies
salary
work conditions
motivating factors
growth
responsibility
achievement
McClelland’s Theory of 3 needs
achievement: drive to excel, succeed
power: need to have authority over others
affiliation: need for close, friendly relationships
contemporary/modern theories of motivation
- self determination theory
- goal setting theory
- self-efficiacy theory
- reinforcement theory
- equity theory
self-determination theory
anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation
goal-setting theory
specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance
self-efficacy theory
an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
reinforcement theory
similar to goal-setting theory, but focused on a behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one
equity theory
employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others
Hackman and Oldham model
5 job characteristics -> pyschological states
-> outcomes
5 job characteristics
skill variety
task identity
autonomy
feedback
skill variety
task identity
task significance
- -> experienced meaningfulness of work
- -> high motivation
autonomy
experienced responsibility for work outcomes
–> high performance
feedback
knowledge of results of work
–> high satisfaction
two most critical job characteristics of hackman and oldham
feedback
autonomy
to improve motivation
- vary the work
- delegate responsibility
- connect employees to work outcomes
- assign work to groups
financial sources of motivation
compensation
-but the structure is just as important as the amount
4 key considerations for managers in determining compensation
- what to pay
- how to pay
- benefits/choices to offer
- supplemental payments
non-financial sources of motivation
job rotation
job enrichment
alternative work arrangements
employee involvement in decision making
job rotation
shifting of emplotees from one task to another with similar skill requirements
job enrichment
the expansion of a job by increasing the degree to which the worker controls the planning, execution, and evaluation of the work
alternative work arrangements
- flextime
- job sharing
- telecommunication
employee involvement in decision making
- participative management
- representative management
Tuckman’s 5 stages of group formation
forming storming norming performing adjourning
forming
members feel much uncertainty
storming
lots of conflict between members of the group
norming
members have developed close relationships and cohesiveness
performing
the group is finally fully functional
adjourning
focus on wrapping up activities vs. performance
criticism of tuckman’s 5 stages theory
temporary groups under deadlines go through transitions between inertia and activity-at the halfway point they experience an increase in productivity
Punctuated Equilibrium model sequence of action
-inspired by evolutionary theory
- setting group direction
- first phase of inertia
- half-way point transition
- major changes
- second phase of inertia
- accelerated activity
role
a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit
Milgram experiment
- inspired by Nazis
- was “ a mutual sense of morality among those involved in holocaust”? or was it driven by leadership?
stanford prison experiment
hypothesis: the inherent personality traits of prisoners and guards are the chief cause of abusive behavior in prison
- inspired by brutality observed in WW2
key considerations for group dynamics in experiment
- roles
- power/authority (preferred to follow orders rather than challenge authority)
- influence of “rogue” participants (one guard went above and beyond normal expected behavior and corrupted the whole thing)
norms
acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by members
examples of norms
performance (acceptable work)
appearance (appropriate to wear)
social relationships (appropriate to interact with certain people)
conformity
individuals adjust their behavior to align with group norms
Hawthorne research studies at western electric in 1930s
- money was less a factor in determining worker output than were group standards, sentiments and security
- worker behavior significantly affected by group influences
status
socially defined position or rank given to groups or members by others
3 sources status is derived from
power
contribution
personal characteristics
equality of status
- large status differences limit diversity of ideas and creativity
- if status is perceived to be inequitable, it will result in corrective behavior
size
size affects performance (12+ is large group, 7 or less is small)
social loafing
the tendency to expand less individual effort when working collectively
Ringelmann’s Rope Pull
greater levels of productivity but with diminishing returns as group size increases
how to prevent social loafing
- promote competition via rewards
- use peer evaluations
cohesiveness
degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to remain part of the group
how to increase cohesiveness
- time: increase time spent together
- admission difficulty: increase selectivity
- competition: create a “shared” opponent
- isolation: physically isolate or seperate the group
concerns about cohesiveness
groupthink
groupshift
groupthink
group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority or unpopular views
groupshift
when discussing a given set of alternatives and arriving at a solution, group members tend to exaggerate the initial positions that they hold
cons of teams
teams use more time/resources than individuals
-added complexity can delay progress
organizational structure
how job tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated
6 elements of organizational structure
work specialization departmentalization chain of command span of control centralization/decentralization formalization
work speciailization
to what degree are activities subdivided into seperate jobs
departmentalization
on what basis will jobs be grouped together
chain of command
to whom do individuals and groups report
span of control
how many individuals can a manager efficiently and effectively direct
centralization/decentralization
where does decision-making authority lie?
formalization
to what degree will there be rules and regulations to direct employees and managers?
simple/flat organization
low departmentalization, wide spans of control, centralized authority
strengths of simple/flat Org structure
simple fast decision making
-clear accountability
weaknesses of simple/flat org structure
- information overload at top; dependency on one figurehead
- slower decision making if large organization
examples of simple/flat org structures
- startups
- small/independent businesses (law firms, LLCs)
- Zappos/Google both working to flatten their organzation
functional organizational structure
organizing jobs by a specific job function, activity, or skill
advantages of a functional org structure
- efficiencies from together staff with same skills and knowledge
- team coordination
- in depth specialization
disadvantages of functional org structure
- poor communication across functional areas
- limited view of organizational goals
examples of functional org structure
- consumer goods companies
- Coca-Cola, Proctor&Gamble, Frito-Lay, Revlon
divisional organizational structure
organizing jobs by geographic location, product, customer, etc
advantages of divisional org structure
- more effective handling of regional issues
- serves needs of unique geographic markets
disadvantages of divisional org structures
- duplication of functions
- can feel isolated from other organizational areas
examples of divisional org structures
- large multi-industry/multi-national firms
- virgin; disney;viveni-universal;walmart
matrix organizational structure
dual lines of authority, combining both functional and divisional designs
strengths of matrix org structure
- strengths of both functional and product org structures
- better, more direct communication
- more flexibility
- maximizes use of staff skills
weaknesses of mixed org structures
- dual chain of command
- power struggles/conflicts
examples of matrixed org structures
- many larger tech fims
- microsoft; qualcomm
team organizational structures
the entire organization is made up of work groups or self-managed teams
strengths of team org structure
- enhanced flexibility
- empowered employees
- reduced barriers among functional areas(cross-functional)
weaknesses of team org structures
- no clear chain of command
- pressure on teams to perform
examples of team org structures
- consulting firms
- whole foods
- many tech firms (Xerox;Motorola)
Virtual/network organizational structure
organization outsources its major business functions in order to concentrate what it does best
strengths of virtual/network org structure
- always selecting the best alternatives
- maximum flexibility
weaknesses of virtual/network org structure
- reduces managements control over key parts
- can be difficult to maintain over extended period of time
examples of virtual/network org structures
- film production companies
- Chevron-Texaco: outsources accounting/IT overseas
- Hospitals: outsources X-rays, diagnostic functions
Hofstede’s Value framework
- analyzes cultural values across the world
- power distance
- individualism
- masculinity
- uncertainty avoidance
- time orientation
lower power distance
relatively equal power between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth
-US
high power distance
extremely unequal power distribution between those with status/wealth vs those without
- russia
- china
individualistic
the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups
-US
collectivistic
social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after and protect them
- China
- Russia
- Brazil
- India
masculinity
society values achievement, power, and control; assertiveness and materialism
-China
femininity
the extent to which there is little differentiation between roles for men and women (metrosexual in nature)
high uncertainty avoidance
society does not like ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them
- Russia
- Brazil
low uncertainty avoidance
society does not mind ambiguous situations and embraces them
- China
- US
- India
long term time orientation
a national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence
-China
short term time orientations
a national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and here and now
-US
power distance trends
western nations tend to be lower
- eastern tend to be higher
- impoverished nations tend to be higher
individualism trends
western nations are higher than eastern nations
time orientation trends
western nations are more short term
eastern nations are more long term
Country with low individualism will prefer
family/community oriented ads
more important to have strong leaders in
high power distance nations
personal relationships are more critical in countries with
low individualism
___ are important to consider when negotiating internationally
individualism and power distance
countries with low __ are more openminded to creative solutions
uncertainty avoidance
countries with high __ are less interested in short term results
long term time orientation
