midterm 2 Flashcards
describe the Estate of Amun
City of Thebes was home to cult of Amun-Ra, a solar deity known as the king of the gods and source of fertility
temples of Amun built at Karnak in 18th century
festivals to show proper rule and keeping balance (Festival of Opet)
what is Karnak
a purpose built complex of temples and religious structures on the edge of Thebes; temples of Amun built in 18th dynasty
describe the temples of Amun
built in Karnak outside Thebes
mud brick walls to keep out populace
meant to nurture gods with offerings
pylons at front have scenes of kings conquering enemies by the gods
cattle, mineral rights, grain storage facilities
describe the valley of the kings
Estate of Amun extends to western bank of Nile into Valley of the Kings
in 18th dynasty pharaoh Amenhotep (~1505 BC) was buried in secret rock-cut tombs in valley of kings
near valley of queens, with tombs of princes and court officials
who is Hatshepsut
18th dynasty pharaoh, daughter of Thutmoses I
God’s wife of Amun, the highest ranking priestess of the Amun cult
married Thutmoses II who died 3 years later
had daughter Neferure
co-regent with Thutmoses III, son Thutmoses II had with another wife, until 5th year where she removed him and ruled from there
had diabetes and bone cancer at death (died at 50)
describe the reign of Hatshepsut
crowned herself as ruler in her 5th year as co-regent, removing her co-regent Thutmoses III
claimed her father put her as successor and that Amun took her father’s appearance at her conception, so she is Amun’s daughter
replaced courtiers with those loyal to her
prosperous reign, built monuments in Karnak, brought luxury goods from other nations
after her death, Thutmoses III took throne and aggressively wiped her from history (chipped name from monuments, defaced images etc)
describe the expedition to punt
recorded at Deir el-Bahari, a workers village
land fabled for gold, ebony, animals, myrrh incense, etc
expedition led by Senenmut, a consort of Hatshepsut
mutual relations
egyptians recorded flora, fauna, and people of the region
describe Thutmose III
co-regent with Hatshepsut, removed after 5th year, came back after her death and attempted to wipe her from history
called greatest ruler of New Kingdom, compared to Napoleon
trade with Nubia, Aegeans, Crete, Phoenicia
continued traditional royal patronage of arts and religion; commissioned art to glorify himself and the gods
50 year rule
who is Akhenaten
pharaoh who started the Amarna period (moved capital to Amarna, living in fortified palace separate from community)
coronated at Karnak by priests of Amun; married sister Nefertiti
in 5th year of reign, broke power of priests of Amun and made cult of the sun god Aten the state religion; declared himself and Nefertiti to be gods, remove mention of Amun from monuments
describe the rule of Akhenaten
in 5th year of reign, shifted power from cult of Amun to cult of Aten, a quasi-monotheistic cult that banned worship of the old gods (most couldn’t access cult of Aten so they kept worshipping other gods anyway)
moved capital to Amarna, living in fortified palace separate from community; called Amarna period; developed new art and architectural styles
ignored foreign policy and requests for help (eg King of Byblos sent over 50 letters, ended up conquered); lost control of Near East and hampered trade
who is tutankhamun
aka king tut
son of akhenaten, advisors had him reinstate cult of Amun
abandoned Amarna, moving to Thebes and Memphis
empire crumbled, with Hittites defeated their allies the Mitanni
died at ~20, leaving no heirs; power taken by the vizier Ay and then the general Horemheb who stabilized the nation
describe the Ramesside dynasty
19th dynasty, 1295-1186 BC
started with Ramesses I, 2 year rule after Horemheb
grandson Ramesses II aka Ramesses the Great defeated hittites in battle of Kadesh, used nubian gold to rebuild, build temple of Abu Simbel
describe the battle of Kadesh
Kadesh was a city in Syria, trade hub held by the Hittites
Ramesses II vs King Muwatalli II
best documented battle in ancient near east; both claimed victory, likely a draw
Ramesses led division too quickly and was isolated against Hittite army; Egypt claimed he led a heroic battle until his army arrived
Egyptians caught between river and Hittite forces, rallied troops for successful defence
resulted in treat of Kadesh, the first bilateral peace treaty; both states diminished
describe Abu Simbel
site with temples built by Ramesses II
walls depict him winning battle of Kadesh and killing a hittite warrior, with other hittite warriors being subdued
built near Nubia to show dominance of Egypt
describe the climate of the Indus Valley
outside of monsoon belt
arid/semi-arid environment with climatic extremes
floods b/w June/Sept after monsoon rains and snow melting in Himalayas
where were indus valley settlements located
spread out along rivers/tributaries, built above highest flood level
describe subsistence in the indus valley
floodplain has desert environment; farmers built irrigation canals to water fields
floodplain lacks minerals or metals, so trade is needed, but was forested and has sources of clay and salt
describe the discovery of Harrapan civilization
not widely known until 20th century
1856; british engineers building East India Railroad through Punjab and needed ballast; used burnt mudbrick from Harrapan sites
1st systemic excavations in 1920s
describe the origins of agriculture in the indus valley
debated if it was introduced or started independently
many domesticated plants/animals were possibly introduced from elsewhere
Zebu (humped cattle) domesticated in south asia
cotton domestication thought to be local
describe Mehrgarh
earliest neolithic site in NW india
7000-2600 BC
near Bolan Pass in Balochistan; trade route b/w indus valley and afghanistan
mobile pastoral–>agricultural
initial settlements were aceramic (no pottery)
describe the settlement structures of Mehrgarh
1st 1k years of initial settlement; mud brick houses with 4 divisions in a defined orientation, suggesting social organization
after 3500 BC, community broke into small dense units connected by irrigation canals
describe the burial patterns of Mehrgarh
pit burials and brick lined tombs
dead often buried in fetal-like position on side with grave goods such as bitumen lined baskets, bone/stone tools, bangles, stone ornaments, shell beads
oldest lost wax technique for casting copper into wheel amulet shown
some animal sacrifices, largely goats
describe craft production in Mehrgarh
communal buildings for grain storage; this helps sustain full time craft specialists
made faience beads, female figurines, first button seals for ownership and sealing goods (similar to those in mesopotamia, made of bones and ceramics with geometric patterns)
had updraft kilns and large pit kilns for pottery
describe the fall of mehrgarh
centuries long reorganization; after 3500 BC broke up into small densely packed units connected by irrigation canals
site abandoned by 2600 BC when major Harappan cities emerged
describe mohenjo-daro
largest mature harappan city (120 hectares)
40k-80k people
grid like plan; municipal supervision
high 12m citadel in west protected by burnt brick fortification with towers
describe the city planning of mohenjo-daro
‘lower town’ surrounds the citadel
planned streets and alleys; 9m wide roads, cross streets half as wide and unpaved
houses built in 5 designs of mud brick, 2-3 stories tall
wealthier homes had central courtyard for guests and making food, also bathing areas and flushable toilets connected to sewer system
poorer people may have had single room tenements/workshops
had standardized fired bricks (waterproof); needs considerable organization
describe the Harappan writing system
undeciphered script of pictographs
logosyllabic; symbols are seemingly sounds and words
read right to left
early as 2800 BC, most from mature Harappan (2500-2050 BC)
argued to represent ancient dravidian or sanskrit
daily writing possibly done on ola leaves
what findings suggest bureaucratic oversight in Harappan civilizations
standard weights and measures used
seals, weights, writing, long distance exchange all suggest economic bureaucracy
standardized bricks; same size of sun dried and fired bricks used in multiple cities; considerable organization needed to make these
describe the harappan political and social order
don’t fit theoretical models; unknown if settlements were independent city states or if it was one territorial state
no temples, palaces, elite monuments, elite burials
unpretentious middle class of merchants and officials
emphasized modesty, order, and cleanliness
no sign of rulers except one limestone figure that may have been revered
describe the end of harappan civilization
several century decline starting around 1900 BC
trade collapses with near east, demise of Sarasvati river from tectonic change
climate change to drought in valley
forest clearance for farmland and brick firing may have caused soil erosion and thus uncontrolled flooding
late period has decline in urban populations; indus script stops
describe the two major river valleys in ancient china
Huanghe (Yellow) river in north; flows through region of loess soil that is dry and permeable; cold winters; drought resistant millet farming
Yangtze river in south; warmer and better watered, milder winters and hot summers; rice cultivated in waterlogged fields; contains Hemudu site
both have evidence of agriculture origins and early state development
name the Huanghe river cultures in order
yellow river cultures in order:
Peiligang, Yangshao, Longshan cultures, potentially mythical Xia state (Erlitou), then Shang dynasty
describe the Peiligang culture
7000-5000 BC
earliest neolithic culture in Huanghe river valley in northern china
domesticated broomcorn, foxtail millets
grew chinese cabbage
sites have bones of domesticated pigs, dogs, fowl, also wild animals/plant foods
describe the Yangshao culture
5000-3000 BC
next Huanghe river culture after Peiligang which it develops from
farmed foxtail millet, chinese cabbage, hemp, chestnuts, domesticated soybean
silkworms,pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, dogs
spatially planned communities eg Banpo with 100 houses surrounded by a ditch w/ cemetery and pottery kilns outside ditch
decorated pottery, steaming vessels (early chinese cuisine), signs/marks on pots, not viewed as language however
viewed as roots of chinese culture
describe the Hongshan culture
located in manchuria
4000-3000 BC
small villages w/ ceremonial cites and burials; fragments of clay statues
Niuheliang temple; life sized female head with jade eyes in cruciform structure w/ semi-subterranean chambers
proto-state?
describe the longshan culture (chronology, social organization, etc)
follow yangshao culture in Huanghe (yellow) river
social ranking, unequal distribution of wealth, increased violence (fortified cities and more skeletons with trauma); craft specialization
Longshan Horizon; interaction sphere of independent polities that spread tech and share ideology/material symbols; material culture becomes more homogenous and polities may unite
‘black pottery culture’; black, burnished ceramics; pedestal bowls (tou) and cooking pots with hollow legs (ting)
inequality shown in burials; highest status had wood coffins, jade ornaments, ceremonial weapons, fine pottery
hang tu (rammed earth) construction techniques; 10m thick and several meters high (needed organized workforce but unsure if evidence of an early state)
what is scapulamancy
ritual for predicting future using bones
ask question to deities and ancestors by writing them on shoulder blade of an ox or turtle plastron
hot metal rod applied; pattern of cracking determined answers to questions
no inscriptions on longshan oracle bones
in shang times answers were recorded on bone/shell
describe the Xia state
debated if the dynasty was mythical
founded by Yu the Great; exact location and time unclear
no evidence in Shang oracle texts
supposed Xia sites can’t be distinguished from Shang via material culture
if real, it was in Huanghe valley with capital at Erlitou
describe Erlitou
city of 20k people thought to be capital of the Xia dynasty
elite centers w/ palace enclosures, clusters of villages and workshops around them
long distance trade; bronze for elites
2 rectangular palaces of rammed earth in regulated patter on cardinal directions
human sacrifices, bronze and turquoise workshops
describe the Shang dynasty
1st historically recorded civilization in china (1600-1046 BC)
info from archaeology in Anyang (Yin), historical texts, oracle bone inscriptions
7 capitals in middle Huanghe river valley; 1st capital at Ao (under modern Zhengzhou)
began as confederation of smaller polities, that later were controlled by one ruler
legend says it was founded by Cheng Tang who overthrew king of Xia
conquered territories were incorporated as tributary provinces w/ local appointed officials
common marriage alliances
describe Yin
last Shang capital; important archaeological site
present day Anyang
over 5.8km
ceremonial/admin center w/ rammed earth temples and royal residences; outer neighbourhoods had industrial workshops
contains Xiaotun
south of Huanbei Palace-temple complex
describe Yin royal burials
most graves in the cemetery are small and not elaborate
found 11 royal burials that required lots of labour; 10-11m deep, 40m ramps; eight cruciform, others rectangle
11 tombs are likely of the 11 recorded Shang kings that ruled Yin
bronze vessels and objects, stone objects, shells and bones, human sacrifices
describe lady fuhao
Fuhao often mentioned in oracle inscriptions; 1 of 60 wives of king wu-ding, greatest general of Shang
led military campaigns on behalf of king, stood in for him in state functions
tomb found intact with lacquered wooden coffin, 440 bronzes, weapons, 590 jades, stone, ivory goblets, turquoise
describe chariot burials in ancient china
chariots, drivers, and horses slaughtered and placed in pits near ruler’s tombs for use in afterlife (drivers were slaves/low status)
chariot introduced from SW asia in 1300 BC
in warfare slaves were taken for labour and sacrifice
chariot and bronze tipped arrows were important in war until Qin-Han period saw rise of infantry
describe Shang belief systems
ancestor worship, nature deities, celestial bodies
deities associated with nature (ie rain god), control phenomena and ensure prosperity
rulers act as intermediaries with spirit world
describe oracle bone divination under the Shang dynasty
integral Shang ritual
used earlier ie Longshan, but only had inscriptions from Shang
king asked ancestors about future
writing may have developed to record divinations
inscriptions are logographic (spoken sounds)
describe Shang social organization
quasi-feudal
king had absolute power; only one who could contact ancestors
rigid hierarchy; king, then nobles/aristocracy, then bureaucrats, then common farmers/labourers
sumptuary laws on who could own bronzes
tributes for taxes, labour, militia
royal court organized as mirror of god world
what is tian
heaven/god world of ancient china that the Shang royal court was organized as a mirror of; at center is Shangdi aka Lord on High
translates as sky, day, transcendent deity
also at center is a celestial pole (axis mundi) that the universe revolves around
describe Yin craft workshops
made objects of bronze, bone, gems, also made pottery
industrial scale and high sophistication; specialized division of labour
describe the Shang bronzes
replace Longshan pottery forms in graves
ritual vessels for preparing grain based drink.food (never meat) ass offerings to royal ancestors
death of royal elite involved feast for ancestor spirits, then bronzes placed in deceased’s tomb
often had taotie masks in foreground, spirals in background
symmetry is important; inscriptions repeated on left and right
strict typology for ritual vessels
describe ting
a cooking cauldron in ancient china
by Zhou times, symbol of state; ownership necessary to keep kingly status
describe bronze using polities outside of Shang
Kingdom of Shu (Sanxingdui); early city, 2 categories; bronze ritual vessels/objects in Shang style, and locally produced objects that emphasized human form
Jiangxi province: likely part of Wecheng state; has Xin’gan tomb, 2nd richest next to Fuhao’s tomb; some bronzes in tomb are in local style, some have taotie masks like Shang
describe the fall of the Shang dynasty
1064 BC
last ruler overthrown by Wu Wang, vassal from Wei river valley, who established Zhou dynasty
cultural continuity; similar ritual bronzes, similar state structure
Zhou is larger, more centralized and more bureaucracy
in later eastern zhou get ironworking, compact cities, coins, markets
briefly describe the late bronze age collapse
societal collapse in mediterranean basic in 12th century BC; sudden, violent, disruptive, caused material decline; debated causes
describe the phoenicians generally
civilization of independent city-states in Canaan (Tyre and Sidon most important)
maritime people; big ships with carved horse heads for Yamm, god of the sea
craftspeople; glassware, carved ivories for furniture, ships, dyes eg indigo, Tyrian purple dye for royalty
dye stained skin of workers so they were called the purple people
describe the phoenician ports
sheltered anchorages, seawalls, linked offshore reefs/islets w/ masonry walls
operated mediterranean by 8th century BC
trading colonies in Carthage, Spain, Sicily
describe phoenician craft
most found in assyrian cities (eg nimrud ivories) because the city states fell under assyria and persia in 8th century BC
had fine multicoloured glass
describe the phoenician alphabet
significant invention; replaces syllabic scripts, breaking syllables into individual sounds; 20-30 signs for a language
working alphabet by 11 century BC
spread to aramaeans, israelites, and greeks by 8th century; replaces cuneiform later
what is an empire
large political entity bringing diverse societies under one ruler; other states maintain cultural identity and sometimes political autonomy, but must pay tribute and allegiance to imperial ruler
tribute pays for monumental construction
territory taken by military force
describe the general chronology of the neo-assyrian empire
old assyrian (2000-1700 BC)
middle assyrian (freed from Mitanni dominance in 14th century BC)
late assyria sees start of neo assyrian empire; adad-nirari II comes to power 911 and begins expansion; ends in 612 BC with fall of Nineveh
describe Ashurnasirpal II
883-859 BC
lead assyrian armies
1st army with iron weapons
tribute used to build capital Nimrud; 15 year project over 350 hectares; 70 million sun dried bricks; finished with 10 day feast for 70000 guests
describe Nimrud
northwest palace on raised citadel in assyria
entrances were lamassu figures (colossoal bulls with sweeping wings and human heads) for ritual protection, symbolized wisdom, sight, strength
describe shalmaneser III
assyrian king 858-824 BC
took control of syria and mediterranean coast
tyre and sidon forced to pay tribute; commemorated on bronze gates at Balawat near Nimrud
describe king sargon II
assyrian king 722-705 BC
capital at Khorsabad; palace with decorative wall reliefs; died in battle, afterwards city was abandoned
describe Urartu
mountain kingdom in armenia 830-600 BC (biblical ararat)
capital tushpa
many kingdoms form one to protect from assyria
mountainous geography with impregnable fortresses to retreat to
defeated by Median kingdom of iran
describe nineveh
capital of assyria moved from nimrud to nineveh by sennacherib
palace on citadel, large lower city with wall
planted gardens, orchards and fields
water from mountain springs brought by aqueduct and canals
clay tablets have diplomatic records, epic of gilgamesh, religious/medical texts
place of scholarship; assyrians searched for ancient tablets to add to libraries
describe the collapse of assyria
after ashurbanipal dies, it collapses and Medes from iran and neo-babylonians destroyed cities
medes kingdom withdraws from mesopotamia and leaves it to babylonians, who take nineveh
who was nebuchadnezzar
605-555 BC ruler who reconstructed assyria under neo-babylonian control
babylon was capital
captured jerusalem and looted temple; son belshazzar has feast with temple vessels, god’s hand writes on wall saying he was found wanting and is defeated
describe city of babylon
inner walls considered a wonder of the ancient worldbaked brick forts w/ towers and gates, room for chariots to pass
Ishtar gate at royal palace decorated with blue bricks and dragons/lions/bulls; head of Processional Way, led to temple of marduk and ziggurat (etemenanki)
a thousand temples
what is the processional way
place for processions in city of babylon; from palace to temple of marduk
processions done for events like new year, statues paraded
who was Midas
legendary king of Phrygians who could turn what he touched to gold
ally of Sargon II of assyria
Phrygia had large mineral deposits
tomb had no gold; bronze cauldrons and bowls
tree ring date from timber dates to 740 BC which is long before his reign ended; maybe tomb of his predecessor Gordias
who were the Lydians
rise after Phrygia declines
wealthy; positioned on trade routes m/w mediterranean and asia
king Croesus 560-546 BC
capital sardis on west of anatolian plateau
electrum coins; knew how to separate electrum into gold and silver
coinage copied by greeks and persians; later conquered by persians
who were the medians and persians
persians from SW iran; medes to north with capital at Ectabana, united west iran into one power
persians lived under median rule until 550 BC when cyrus the great overthrew them
who was King Cyaxares
king of Medes
invaded mesopotamia 614 BC, contributing to fall of assyria
war with lydians, but was interrupted by solar eclipse; one of 4 major powers (lydians, medians, babylonians, egypt)
who is cyrus the great
overthrew medians in 550 BC, making persians the dominant power
‘shah’ of persia
conquered lydia and babylon after campaign against nabonidus
kept rulers of conquered lands for advice
governed multicultural empire w/ equal responsibilities and rights for all as long as they paid tribute and tax and kept peace
son Cambyses II took egypt and nubia
wrote cyrus cylinder, restored statues of gods to temples to legitimize reign
what is the cyrus cylinder
oldest declaration of human rights by cyrus the great of persia
who is King Darius
general who was king when cyrus’s son died on way back from egypt; ruled to peak of persia
largest population of any empire; 50 million, 44% of world at time
uniform monetary system, aramaic as official language, roads and standard weights
memorial to him in behistun
describe the decline of persia
rulers became decadent, increased internal trouble
defeated at battle of marathon 490 BC
taken by alexander the great
describe the legendary origins of rome
attributed to romulus ~753 BC
romulus and remus are twins from rhea silvia and mars (maternal grandfather is king Alba Longa); uncle ordered them to be thrown into tiber river
rescued and nursed by wolf before king’s herdsman found them
brothers killed uncle and restored grandfather alba longa to throne
went to tiber to establish city, fought over which hill should house new city
remus is killed; romulus fortifies palatine hill and becomes king of rome
describe the rule of early rome
commanded by king (rex) with absolute power
7 legendary kings, advised by senate
after romulus kings were elected by people from nominees confirmed by senate
kings from latin, sabine (umbrian), and etruscan origins
describe the roman republic
510 BC leading families overthrow kings and establish republican constitution
oligarchies became more common
rome still a city sstate among about 14 in the area
dominated by patrician aristocrats with wealth from land
most citizens were plebians,; commoners with internal hierarchy, laws, and interests
state compelled to give plebians access to politics; elected tribunes who had veto power
spread of latin, waning of greek and etruscan influence
annex etruscan city Veii
rivalry shifted to Carthage by the punic war
describe carthage
north africa, founded by phoenicians in 9th century BC
became city state and then empire with height in 4th century
by 300 BC they had naval and commercial domination
fought rome in the Punic wars
describe the first punic war
264-241 BC 23 years; carthage and rome fought over control of Sicily
battle of cape ecnomus
ended with treaty and roman annexation of sicily; syracuse stayed a greek city state
describe the second punic war
218-201 BC
happened in Italy, Iberia, and Africa
after 1st war, carthage expanded in iberia; 219 BC forces under Hannibal captured and sacked roman backed city of saguntum
next year, hannibal and gailic allies surprised romans by land invasion over alps
hannibal had victories but couldn’t capture rome; romans invaded north africa and defeated him
gave rome territorial holdings outside italian peninsula
treaty stopped carthage from waging war without roman permission
describe the 3rd punic war
149-146 BC
after 2nd, rome expanded eastward carthage sends army to fight romans in aid of ally Masinissa of Numidia
fought in carthiginian territory; roman sieges of carthage
ended with destruction of carthage; inhabitants sold as slaves, territory incorporated as roman province of africa with capital at Utica
describe the early life of julius caesar
born in 100 BC to patrician family claiming descent from Aeneas and Venus
father died at 16 so he was nominated high priest of jupiter
general Sulla victorius in civil war and declared himself dictator; targeted caesar because he was married to the daughter of an influential member of the opposition
fled rome and joined army in west asia
describe caesar’s rise to power
after sulla died in 78 BC caesar returned to rome to be an orator (lawyer) and prosecuted politicians connected to sulla
elected to military tribune in 71 BC, made alliances eg with pompey
elected to praetorship in 63 BC, then governor of Hispania Ulterior, then Roman Consul
1st triumvirate was an alliance of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus
made enemies with Optimates
in debt due to ambitions; gained wealth through conquest eg in Gaul
ally killed Crassus, Pompey aligns with Optimates and terminates Caesar’s governance in Gaul
Caesar amasses troops and crosses Rubicon into italy and Pompey flees to egypt, where he is killed because egyptians though gods favoured caesar
caesar went into egyptian civil war, killing ptolemy XIII and installing cleopatra
appointed dictator in absentia; spent years suppressing rebellions and defeating optimates before becoming Dictator Perpetuus (dictator for life)
