midterm 1 (athranos) Flashcards
who is considered the first archaeologist; describe his motivations and studies
Nabonidus
final king of babylon; overthrew the last king; would renovate old temples as public good effort to appease the people
for their culture, the foundations had to be excavated first so it could be restored according to original plans
found artifacts and inscriptions
sought to understand history through material culture; daughter put his findings on display
What is antiquarianism
study, collection, etc of antiquities/artifacts etc, usually focusing on material/aesthetic qualities
lacks desire to understand historical/cultural context, more just about novelty
extractive, descriptive, object focused
what is provenience
something’s origin; archaeologists like to find objects in situ (in their original place) so they can understand its context
what is a complex society
society characterized by developed social/economic/political organization
usually have hierarchical structures, centralized authority, and advanced economies
define a civilization
a complex society involving distinct cultural, technologixal, and symbolic achievements
often have urbanization, writings systems, monumental architecture, and long lasting cultural/technological innovations
usually state level
define state level societies
well defined centralized authority/governments; enforce laws, regulate resources, maintain order
name some common features of ancient states
centralized authority
public monumental architecture
administrative structure
hierarchy and stratification
economic systems (taxation and currency)
cultural and legal systems (regulate behaviour and define values; some explicitly stated eg mesopotamian moral codes)
formal record keeping and science/math/writing
state level institutionalized religion
military organization
what is the difference between a city state and a territorial stae
city state influence is focused on one city, some influence on hinterlands (often for agriculture and trade of things they can’t get on their own)
territorial states are larger with many cities and regions under a central government; cities are largely political and administrative, rural areas give resources and labour
what is the urban revolution theory and who championed it
championed by V Gordon Childe
seeks to explain rise of states through emergence of specialists
invention of metallurgy led to rise in specialists
would live in cities and rely on food from hinterland farmers
need central authority to control politics/economy, forming a class based society
whar are the issues with Childe’s theory
V Gordon Childe’s theory of urban revolutions doesn’t fully explain state formation
craft specialization exists in more egalitarian societies too
craft specialization is more of a symptom/effect than a cause of state formation
what is the fertile crescent hypothesis and who proposed it
proposed by James Henry Breasted
fertility in Nile/Euphates floodplains is a primary factor of state formation in the area
annual flooding brought new silt and water, so soil was fertile; creates surplus food which can support economic exchange, wealth accumulation, and specialized labour
what is the hydraulic hypothesis and who proposed it
proposed by Karl Wittfogel
claims irrigation led to central authority
dry river valleys need organized groups to manage irrigation and redistribute surplus
voluntary submission due to important role
authority expands control eg to trade
can divert water to their fields to get surplus and trade for prestige goods
authority becomes despotic
what is the coercive hypothesis and who proposed it
proposed by Robert Carniero
land is limited; farmland circumscribed (surrounded by barriers like desert, mountains, sea etc)
settle on fertile land until it is taken up
when population grows, only option to expand is take land from neighboring groups
conquered groups assimilated, creating lower classes
rulers increase agricultural production via expansion and technological development to support intensive agriculture
what are some issues with the coercive hypothesis for state formation
not all states emerge in circumscribed environments; some in open/expansive areas
unclear if warfare is primary cause of state formation
what are proposed as the three major sources of power in ancient states? describe each
Economic power: create/manage specialized workforce, division of labour, prestige good exchange requiring organization, record keeping, and supervision
Social power: power over symbols that promote cultural/political unity; religious sites and plazas in cities for ceremonies; rituals show place as keepers of cosmic order; legitimize authority
political power: administrative and military authority; ensure security for subjects; maintain state
what is the dynamic model
coined by Joyce Marcus
repetitive cycles of state consolidation, expansion, and dissolution
argued that unitary states last ~200 years, hard to maintain unequal structures for a long time
tldr, cycles of states rising, expanding, and collapsing
what is a chalcolithic culture
copper age culture (chalcolithic means use of copper)
what were early settlements like on the mesopotamian floodplain before city states
hunter gatherer populations; some farmers settled along rivers; obtained copper ore and obsidian from Anatolia (modern turkey)
what were the phases of Chalcolithic development on the mesopotamian floodplains (6500-4200 BC)
Halaf phase
Hassuna phase
Samarra phase
Ubaid phase
describe the Halaf/Halafian phase in early mesopotamia (time period in relation to other periods, geographic area, characteristics
6000-5400 BC
occured in northwest; northern foothills/uplands in Iraq/Syria
developed from indigenous hunter gatherers
characterized by Tholoi; key shaped mud-brick architecture for many purposes
early figures, painted pottery and art; stamp seals to mark ownership (suggests specialization)
rain fed agriculture (no irrigation)
describe the Hassuna phase in early mesopotamia (time period in relation to other periods, geographic area, characteristics)
6500-5900 BC; overlaps in both area and time with Samarra phase
further south than the Halaf phase; in dry plains (less rain)
first farmers in northern plain; moved from mountains into foothills then settled river valleys where they used simple irrigation
small villages/hamlets; mud walled buildings with open courtyards
simpler pottery than Halaf
baking ovens and sickles for harvesting grain
describe the Samarra phase in early mesopotamia (time period in relation to other periods, geographic area, characteristics)
6500-5900 BC; shares time and space with Hassuna
first evidence of large scale canal irrigation at Choga Mami site; implies organized labour and settled, organized culture
Tell es-Sawwan site; multi roomed mud brick buildings surrounded by wall, T shaped buildings for storage and burials
first uniform pottery style traded widely; geometric designs with dark colours on light background
imported gemstones, copper, obsidian
describe the Ubaid phase in early mesopotamia (time period in relation to other periods, geographic area, characteristics)
6000-4200 BC
laid foundation for later mesopotamian civilizations
divided into 6 subphases, from phase 0 to 5
in phase 0, first farmers settled southern plain and establish villages with multi room rectangular mud brick houses
two tiered settlement hierarchy; large sites more than 10 hectares and small sites less than 1 hectare
specialized craftspeople, but most are farmers
begin temple institution and expansion of irrigation agriculture
describe Ubaid 0
initial phase of Ubaid period, overlapping with Samarra culture
contains earliest site in southern mesopotamia, Tell el Oueili ~6000 BC
environment marshy; exploited fish, birds, reeds, etc
farmers in river valleys who used irrigation
simplest of Ubaid pottery; black paint of buff ware
describe Ubaid 1
~4500 BC
rapid urbanization via irrigation and plough farming
Eridu: early urban settlement
Ubaid culture expands from Eridu to northern plain and around persian gulf to Oman, a copper source
2 tiered; Eridu, and smaller towns/villages
copper agricultural tools, sailing for trade and transport
unwalled settlements (not protecting from outside threats)
who is Ea
aka Enki; Eridu’s patron god; ‘lord of sweet waters that flow under the earth’; credited in creation story with founding of Eridu & thus civilization
said to be 1st of 5 cities before great flood
what is Eridu and why is it important
one of the first urban settlements; represents urbanization in Ubaid 1
what was the role of temple institutions in mesopotamia
housed city patron gods, home of religious authority; land holders and employers
describe Eridu’s temple
constructed on large raised platform dedicated to Enki
built in phases with each being larger and higher
residences around it for priests and priestesses
temples controlled water rights; controlled irrigation systems
priests/priestesses managed surplus production and used it to get prestige goods
describe the major changes in the Uruk Revolution
1st true cities and city states emerge
writing developed
wheeled vehicles invented
craft specialization refined
trade networks expand
centralized religious and secular control with clear social hierarchy
what is a tell
artificial mounds on the plain; remains of mesopotamian cities
formed from buildup and collapse of mud-brick buildings and city garbage
describe Uruk (city)
the world’s first true city; 40k-80k at peak in Uruk period
top level of 4 tiered settlement hierarchy (cities, towns, villages, hamlets)
patron gods wereIshtar/Inanna, goddess of love, war and ripening crops, and Anu, god of the sky
two temple complexes; Anu Ziggurat with White Temple, and Eanna Precinct
initially was 2 settlements with their own patron deities; merged into one city
what is the Eanna District
dedicated to goddess Inanna/Ishtar
evidence of planning in layout of buildings, courtyards, etc
earliest evidence of cuneiform writing
important throughout sumerian culture
found in Uruk
what is the Anu Ziggurat
stepped platform pyramid with White Temple on top; large labour (80k person days) and need centralized authority to make
built of limestone
white temple decorated with clay cone mosaics
authority reflected in size of ziggurat
dedicated to Anu, in Uruk
why were temples and ziggurats built so large
size reflected power of authority
could represent stairways to and from heaven for people and gods to meet
visible over long distance on flat floodplains
describe the new authorities of Uruk and their depictions
government organization began to include secular rulers
king called Ensi, meaning Lord of the Plowland
commanded tribute in labour and surplus, responsible for giving offerings to city patron gods/goddesses, who represented city at council of the gods
depicted as male with long hair and beard, net skirt and headband, often subduing enemies and taking prisoners
women not depicted as leaders
how did priests in Uruk divine the future; other roles
divine future through dreams and reading entrails of sacrificed animals
record keeping of sacrifices, divinations, and following events
held secular ruler in check
describe the stages of the evolution of writing in mesopotamia
stage 1: notation systems in neotlithic (~7000 BC) with baked clay tokens in 16 shapes (eg spheres, pyramids, cubes, animals, pottery jars), ~4000 BC variety explodes to 300 forms w/ markings for detailed records (mostly in temples)
stage 2: post 3500 BC, many tokens encased in clay bullae, impressed with outline of tokens before sealed (incised if shape doesn’t impress well); likely represent one transaction; X rays show the contents don’t always correspond with impressions
stage 3: shift to tablets ~3000-2000 BC; 80% in Uruk were economic eg profession lists; early tablets had pictographic designs, later syllabic, soon replaced with cuneiform ~3100 BC
describe the sumerian early dynastic period
2900-2350 BC
beginning of historical period; rise of southern sumerian city states (sumer in south, akkad in north)
written records extend past economic administration to king lists, literature, poetry
describe the political organization of ancient sumer
divided into ~20 city states, each with a major city and temple, with surrounding territory in 4 tiered settlement hierarchy
ruled by kings in hereditary dynasties; temple institution still important
describe the urban form of sumerian city states
defensive brick wall, central temple and palace; rest of cities divided into neighbourhoods partially by occupation
often faced onto river (harbour or quay)
mud-brick houses, multistoried with central courtyard
rural settlements decline as city size increased
describe Nippur and its relevance
city at juncture of Sumer and Akkad; seat of worship of Enlil, the sumerian wind god and ‘god of the gods’; most sacred center
controlling it was fundamental to legitimacy of sumerian kings; control meant the king was the ‘king of kings’, example of god world mirroring earthly world
where was lapis lazuli sourced from for the mesopotamians
afghanistan
where was obsidian and chert sourced from for the mesopotamian
anatolia (turkey)
what goods did mesopotamians get from the persian gulf
copper, dates, pearls
what goods did mesopotamians get from southern arabia
steatite (soapstone), diorite, copper
what goods did mesopotamians get from the indus valley
carnelian (red stone used for jewelery), gaming dice, figurines (indus valley loved hatsune miku)
where did mesopotamians get soapstone bowls from in trade
iranian plateau
describe the royal cemetery at Ur
~2500 burials
most simple pit graces; deceased wrapped in mats/placed in wooden coffins; practices for everyday people
16 were royal burials; lavish grave goods like gold bowls, a lyre with a bull’s head, and a gold necklace; brick/stone chambers, human sacrifices
shows social stratification
human sacrifices not found in burials after early dynastic period
what is prince meskalamdug known for
royal burial at Ur; tomb filled with gold, objects bearing his name and title of king
buried with gold helmet with ears and hair depicted in gold, sheet metal mask for face; musical instruments, model boats, games
describe queen puabi
queen buried in Ur royal cemetary
stone chamber at bottom of shaft sealed in stone vault
placed on wooden bier with a cloak of lapis, cold, and carnelian beads, as well as a wig, gold bands, and 3 attendants
surrounded by death pit of 59 human sacrifices, many wearing jewellery, and oxen
under her tomb is a man, presumably husband, accompanied by 19 female and 2 male sacrifices, 6 oxens, chariots, musical instruments, and silver objects
cause of death disputed
describe the sumerian view of the afterlife
viewed as unpleasant without food or comforts; needed to bring food and gifts to give to lords of the underworld to improve situation; burial goods indicate differences in diet with elite having varied diet and workers eating barley, beer, fish
who is sargon
Akkadian ruler who conquered Uruk; expanded empire making Akkadian the lingua franca of the area for 2000 years
legend says he was son of a priestess of Ishtar; had him in secret and set him in a reed basket in the Euphrates; baby found, raised at court and became ruler
who is naram-sin
king of akkad who claimed divinity ‘king of the 4 quarters, king of the universe’; made the ruler both a spiritual and secular authority, undermining competing temple authority
describe the rule of naram-sin
unclear if authority was heavily asserted over city states
appointed governors/administrators of conquers city states who would implement policy, collect tax, maintain order, and ensure loyalty to empire
irrigation expansion intensified
akkadian empire collapsed ~100 years after his death
describe imperial Ur
2112-2204 BC; after fall of Akkadian empire
3rd Ur dynasty established by king Ur-Nammu; rose to prominence as warrior king who crushed ruler of Lagash
last sumerian dynasty that was a preeminent power in mesopotamia
aka Neo-Sumerian empire
contains earliest law codes; Ur became important port of indian ocean trade; extended influence by diplomacy and religion rather than war
describe Ur-Nammu’s law code
written in first person as the king, as the voice of justice for everyone including widows and orphans
2 social groups; free and slave
fines compensate for injuries
capital punishment for murder, robbery, adultery, and rape (punishment graded by class)
basis of later law codes such as hammurabi’s law code
describe the code of hammurabi
babylonian law code more detailed than that of Ur’s
282 laws with penalties for perjury, robbery, and murder; responsibilities for builders when houses collapse, regulations for slaves and marriage etc
who is king shulgi
Ur-Nammu’s son who standardized administration by appointing governors, regularizing tax and tribute payments
exported wool
after him, kings were not as good, empire declined
describe the nile river
egypt developed in its floodplain
longest river in the world with 2 major tributaries; blue nile (Lake Tana, Ethiopia), and white nile (Lake Victoria, Uganda/Tanzania/Kenya)
flows north to its delta at mediterranean
floods more predictable than in mesopotamia, annual and provided rich alluvium (material deposited by rivers, good for crops)
describe the geography of ancient egypt
built on long, narrow oasis surrounded by desert; Kemet, meaning black land, was where they lived, the black fertile floodplain soils; Deshret meaning red land, meant desert sands
describe the two geopolitical areas of egypt and how their crowns were represented in imagery
Upper and lower refer to flow of the nile, not north/south
lower egypt is north at the nile river delta (where the river flows to); ta-mehu, land of the papyrus; red curled crown called deshret (shares name with desert sands)
Upper egypt is south of delta to nubia; ta-shemu, land of the shemu reed; white domed crown called hedjet
combined crown of both is called sekhemti
what is the sekhemti
combined crown of both upper and lower egypt, having both red curled crown and red domed crown
what is the hedjet
white domed crown for upper egypt (south)
what is the deshret
name shared between desert sands (means red land), and the red curled crown for lower (north by delta)
describe pre dynastic egypt
~5000 BC simple farming develops in nile floodplain
planted crops when floods receded, grazed animals on floodplain, harvested crops before next flood
copper using groups (copper ore for paint); most tools made for stone
