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psyc 100 > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Learning

A

process through which an experience comes to affect a future response

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2
Q

Nonassociative learning

A

type of learning where the strength of a response changes due to repeated stimulus. two types: habituation and sensitization

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3
Q

Associative learning

A

type of learning that involves making connections between stimuli and behaviours/consequences

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4
Q

habituation

A

reduction in response to a repeated stimulus that is unchanging and harmless

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5
Q

Dishabituation

A

reappearance of a response that had diminished through habituation, usually through the introduction of a new stimulus

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6
Q

sensitization

A

form of nonassociatve learning where repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to increased response over time

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7
Q

classical conditioning

A

conditioning that happens when a unconditioned stimulus is paired with a conditioned stimulus such that the unconditioned response generated by the unconditioned stimulus becomes associated with the conditioned stimulus, creating a conditoned response

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8
Q

operant conditioning

A

when behaviour is learned as a result of rewards or punishments

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9
Q

Dual Process theory

A

both habituation and sensitization are always at work, the dominant one will depend on the situation (ie. when aroused sensitization is more prevalent and when relaxed habituation is mre prevalent)

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10
Q

acquisition

A

initial learning of an association btw unconditioned and condition stimuli during classical conditioning

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11
Q

extinction

A

reduction of a learned response when a unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus

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12
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

reappearance of conditioned response after periods of rest during extinction

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13
Q

generalization

A

tendency to respond to stimuli that is similar to the original conditioned response

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14
Q

discrimination

A

learned ability to distinguish between stimuli (learning to respond to a particular stimuli but not to another similar one)

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15
Q

continguity

A

the condition such that conditioned stimuli and unconditioned stimuli must be presented close in time to each other for classical conditioning to work

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16
Q

contingency

A

the condition such that the conditioned stimulus must consistently precede the unconditioned stimulus for classical conditioning to work

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17
Q

blocking

A

previously learned association to one stimulus that prevents the learning of a new association (since the learning of the second response would not provide any predictive value and associations are only made toe eveets that are informative)

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18
Q

counterconditioning

A

technique used to replace an undesirable response to a stimulus with a more desirable one

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19
Q

fear conditioning

A

associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes linked to an aversive stimulus, resulting in a fear reaction to a previously neutral stimulus - involves the amygdala, which is also involved in conditioned reward due to being well positioned for creating connections between memory related and reflex mediating and autonomic brain structures

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20
Q

drug tolerance

A

decline in physiological and behavioural effects of a drug that is taken repeatedly (drug tolerance can be developed in part due to conditioning because the body reacts to other cues that signal the drug, therefore overdoses are more common in uncommon environments)

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21
Q

Preparedness

A

organisms are biologically predisposed to learn some associations more quickly than others (especially connections that may help them survive (ie. taste aversions to foods that were followed by sickness)

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22
Q

law of effect

A

behaviours that are followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated and vice versa

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23
Q

ABC of operant condiitoning

A

antecedents: situation or stimulus that precedes the behaviour and set the stage for the behaviour to happen

behaviour: voluntary action that takes place (operant response)

consequences: the stimuli that is presented after the behaviour will increase or decrease the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated

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24
Q

Reinforcement

A

a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated

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25
Q

punishment

A

a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated

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26
Q

positive

A

stimulus is added to either punish or reinforce

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27
Q

negative

A

stimulus is removed to either punish or reinforce

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28
Q

primary reinforcers

A

consequences that innately pleasurable and do not have to be learned because they satisfy a biological need

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29
Q

secondary reinforcers

A

learned pleasures that acquire value through experience that associates them with primary reinforcers

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30
Q

shaping

A

operant conditioning procedure that successively closer approximations to the desired response are reinforced until the desired response occurs (can be used to teach complex behaviours)

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31
Q

instinctive dirft

A

animal’s reversion to evolutionary derived instinctual behaviours instead of demonstrating behaviour that is learned through conditioning

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32
Q

Immediate reinforcement

A

reinforcing a behaviour immediately after it occurs to help establish strong association between response and consequence

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33
Q

delayed reinforcement

A

when there is a delay between response and reinforcement association will be weaker

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34
Q

delay discounting

A

tendency to devalue delayed outcomes

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35
Q

continuous vs partial reinforcement

A

continuous: reinforcement schedule in which a behaviour is rewarded every time it is performed -> leads to faster acquisition but is also subject to rapid extinction when the rewards stop
partial reinforcement: reinforcement schedule in which a behaviour is rewarded only some of the time

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36
Q

fixed ratio vs variable ratio schedules

A

fixed ratio schedules: requires that a behaviour occur a set number of times before it is reinforced (behaviour will tend to decrease briefly after the reinforcer and increase as the individual approaches it)

variable ratio schedules
reinforcement occurs after some variable number of behaviours (less predictable but more effective to elicit consistent behaviour becasue it is less predictable

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37
Q

fixed interval schedule

A

reinforcement occurs after a set period of time after the first response (response pauses after reinforcement and increases sharply at the end of the interval)

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38
Q

variable interval schedule

A

reinforcement occurs after variable amount of time (leads ot slow and consistent responses because the reinforcers are unpredictable)

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39
Q

contingent reinforcement

A

reinforcement is only given when a specific behaviour occurs

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40
Q

non contingent reinforcement

A

reinforcement is delivered on a fixed interval schedule independent of the actions the organism is engaging in - causes superstitious conditioning in where a behaviour with no actual relationship with the reinforcement is learned

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41
Q

latent learning

A

learning that is not immediately demonstrated in an animals behaviour
- edward tolman: rewards affect what an animal does more than they affect what it learns

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42
Q

observational learning

A

learning through observing others rather than through personal experiences

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43
Q

social learning theory

A

theory that learning is a cognitive process derived from social observation rather than direct reinforcement of ones own actions

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44
Q

components of social learning

A

attention (models that get attention are more likely to elicit imitation), retention (must be able to retain memory of the models actions), reproduction (must be able to reproduce the models actions), motivation (must be motivated to reproduce behaviour), reinforcement or punishment (increase/decrease in a behaviour due to the observer witnessing the model being reinforced or punished)

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45
Q

mirror neurons

A

neurons found in cerebral cortex that are active both when preforming an action and when observing that action being preformed by someone else

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46
Q

Cultural transfer

A

transfer of info from one generation to another through teaching and learning (includes vertical and horizontal)

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47
Q

vertical transmission

A

transmission of skills from parent to offspring

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48
Q

horizontal transmission

A

transmission of skills between peers

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49
Q

insight learning

A

form of learning that occurs without trial and error and therefore without reinforcement. similar to an a-ha moment

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50
Q

diffusion chain

A

process where individuals learn by observing a model and then serves as a model so that others can learn the behaviour

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51
Q

conciousness

A

moment by moment awareness of ongoing experiences occurring internally and externally

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52
Q

arousal

A

component of consciousness that relates to the level of wakefulness or alertness

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53
Q

awareness

A

component of consciousness that focuses on and recognition of some experience

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54
Q

self awareness

A

focus and awareness of oneself as a distinct entity from other aspects of the environment

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55
Q

spotlight effect

A

conviction that others are paying more attention to oneself that they actually are

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56
Q

focused awareness

A

awareness is limited and must be rationed (ie through selective attention, which focuses awareness onto a particular stimuli while ignoring other irrelevant stimuli)

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57
Q

inattentional blindness

A

failure to perceive info outside the focus of ones attention

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58
Q

change blindness

A

form of inattentional blindness where a person fails to observe a change in a visual stimulus

59
Q

mind wandering

A

spontaneous, stimulus independent thought) (ex. remebering the past, thinking about the future, fantasizing, etc)

60
Q

perceptual decoupling

A

ability to shift attention from external environmental stimuli to internal stimuli or thoughts

61
Q

automaticity

A

ability to preform a task without conscious awareness or attention (allows us to focus attention elsewhere or mind wander)

62
Q

conscious

A

focus of current awareness

63
Q

preconscious

A

thoughts feelings and memories that are not in current awareness but are consciously accessible

64
Q

dynamic unconsious

A

inaccessible memories, instincts, and desires

65
Q

cocktail party phenomenon

A

ability to pick up important information (such as someone saying your name) while focusing on other info

66
Q

subliminal perception

A

processing of sensory info that occurs below the threshold of conscious awareness

67
Q

mere exposure effect

A

tendency to like stimuli more after repeated exposure to them

68
Q

brain regions that regulate arousal

A

reticular formation and thalamus

69
Q

spatial hemi neglect

A

condition where individual loses awareness of objects/stimuli on one side of the space following brain damage

70
Q

global workplace hypothesis

A

consciousness arises from “broadcasting” of information across a “global workspace” in the brain, where information from various brain regions are integrated and then shared

71
Q

default mode network (DMN)

A

interconnected set of brain regions that are active when the mind is alert and aware but not focused on a particular task

72
Q

locked in syndrome

A

complete paralysis of voluntary muscles but preservation of consciousness and normal cognitive activities (DMN connectivity did not decrease in patients with locked in syndrome contrary to patients who were brain damaged)

73
Q

circadian rythm

A

body’s natural 24 hour cycle that regulates various physiological processes including the sleep wake cycle

74
Q

zeitgeiber

A

external/environmental cue that helps regulate the circadian rhythm (ie light, food intake)

75
Q

melatonin

A

important for regulating sleep and is produced by the pineal gland (secretion from evening till awakening)

76
Q

suprachiasmatic nucleus

A

stimulated by light and regulates rhythmic secretion of certain hormones including melatonin

77
Q

beta waves

A

low amplitude, high frequency -> brain is awake actively processing info

78
Q

alpha waves

A

slower and larger waves -> brain is awake but relaxed

79
Q

theta waves

A

high amplitude and slow, present in stage 1 and 2 (lighter) sleep

80
Q

delta waves

A

slower and higher amplitude than theta waves, present in stage 3 and 4 (deep) sleep

81
Q

k complexes and sleep spindles

A

special waveforms that are present in stage 2 and early stage 3 sleep

82
Q

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

A

cortical and limbic system arousal
back and forth eye movement
sympathetic nervous system activation
vivid dreams
muscular paralysis
tldr: heightened activity in brain’s motor cortex but body muscles are paralyzed as brainstem blocks signals from motor cortex

83
Q

rem behaviour disorder

A

occurs when brainstem does not block motor signals during rem sleep, causing people to act out their dreams (this is different than sleepwalking)

84
Q

sleepwalking

A

occurs typically during deep sleep

85
Q

Manifest vs latent content

A

manifest content: visible surface content of a dream or behaviour that disguises the hidden latent content of the dream
latent content: hidden drives and wishes that are revealed through dreaming

86
Q

activation synthesis hypothesis

A

dreams are created when the brain attempts to organize the chaotic patterns of brain activity into a semicoherent narrative

87
Q

psychoactive drugs

A

chemicals that influence consciousness or behaviour by altering the brain’s chemical signalling, contains of depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens

88
Q

depressants

A

drugs that decrease activity levels in the nervous system and lower levels of arousal. (ie. alcohol, barbiturates, opioids)

89
Q

stimulants

A

drugs that increase activity levels in the nervous system and alertness/energy (ie. caffeine, nicotine, cocaine)

90
Q

hallucinogens

A

distorts sensory perception and can trigger sensory experiences such as sights and sounds in the absence of any sensory input (ie. LSD PCP, THC, mescaline)
(psychedelics are generally structurally similar to serotonin)

91
Q

hypnosis

A

altered state of consciousness involving focused attention and reduced peripheral awareness, characterized by enhanced response to suggestion (may represent an extreme form of selective attention)

92
Q

Hypnotic analgesia

A

the state of hypnosis can cause reduction in pain, manage stress and psychiatric symptoms, and produce behavioural changes such as quitting smoking

93
Q

motive

A

Internal force that moves individuals to act in a certain way

94
Q

instinct

A

innate motives that do not require learning and can be triggered by something in the environment

95
Q

homeostasis

A

process by which organisms maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external envrionment

96
Q

drive reduction theory

A

organisms are driven to engage in activities that reduce tensions and restore homeostasis

97
Q

role of pain in motive

A

helps us avoid things that could cause tissue injury or death

98
Q

sensory component of pain

A

specific information about what is happening (the feeling) (ie. there is a burning sensation on my hand) regulated by the somasensory cortex

99
Q

affective component of pain

A

motivation for a specific response to pain regulated by the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and the anterior insula (ie. I need to move my hand away from the stove)

100
Q

reward

A

describes something that is wanted, liked or serves as a reinforcer in learning

101
Q

wanting

A

the desire for a reward categorized by a sense of anticipation, typically measured by the amount of effort that an individual will exert to obtain the reward. More associated with dopamine

102
Q

liking

A

the subjective feeling of pleasure that is experienced when a reward is received. More associated with opioids

103
Q

alliesthesia

A

the tendency of the reward value of a stimulus to increase with it’s effectiveness of that stimulus in restoring homeostasis (ie. food tastes better when you are hungry)

104
Q

connections between reward and pain

A

opioids play a role in the modulation of both. pain may inhibit the perception of reward and vice versa

105
Q

behavioural perspective on love

A

the theory that infants cling to their mothers because they associate her with food and other material rewards

106
Q

Attachment theory

A

there exists a universal, evolved behavioural systme that motivates the maintenence of proximity to caregivers in infancy and childhood to promote survival

107
Q

glucostatic hypothesis on hunger regulation

A

low glucose levels serve as hunger cue

108
Q

lipostatic hypothesis of hunger regulation

A

body regulates food intake and energy expenditure over the long term based on the amount of stored fat (and their secretion of leptin)

109
Q

role of hypothalamus in regulating appetite

A

the hypothalamus recieves signals related to levels of glucose, leptin, and other hunger and satiety hormones

110
Q

dual centre theory

A

lateral hypothalamus sneds go signal while ventromedial hypothalamus sends stop signals through electrical stimulation

111
Q

estrus

A

mammals period of heightened sexual receptivity and fertility, humans have a menstrual cycle rather than an estrus

112
Q

role of testosterone is regulating sexuality

A

positively correlated with sexual interest in men

113
Q

achievement motivation

A

desire to excel, succeed, or outperform others, may arise due to fear of failure or desire for success

114
Q

approach motivation

A

propensity to move towards some desired stimulus (reward)

115
Q

avoidance motivation

A

propensity to move away from an undesired stimulus (punishment)

116
Q

performance orientation

A

motivational stance that focuses on performing well and looking smart, primarily avoidance, responds negatively to feedback

117
Q

mastery orientation

A

motivational stance that focuses on learning and improving, primarily approach, reacts positively to feedback

118
Q

fixed mindset

A

belief that intelligence and abilities are static and unchangeable, may cause individuals to avoid challenges to protect self image

119
Q

growth mindset

A

belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort and learning, embraces feedback and challenges

120
Q

heirarchy of needs

A

needs are arranged in hierarchical order and lower needs need to be satisfied before higher ones (order: physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, self actualization, self transcendence)

121
Q

emotion (and its three components)

A

a complex reaction pattern to personally relevant events (such as physical and social challenges and opportunities). comprised of experiential, behavioural /expressive, and physiological elements

122
Q

james lance theory of emotion

A

emotions are the result of perceiving bodily changes in response to some stimulus in the environment, such that stimulus -> physiological response -> emotional experience

123
Q

cannon bard theory of emotion

A

critiques james lance theory by pointing out that the speed of bodily changes are not sufficient to produce the speed of the emotional experience. Also theories that bodily response and emotional experience can occur at the same time following a stimulus

124
Q

schachter singer theory of emotion

A

emotional response is the result of an intrepretative label applied to a bodily response such that stimulus -> physiological response -> judgement -> emotional response

125
Q

appraisals

A

our appraisals (interpretations of a situation) shape our emotional experience

126
Q

emotional granularity

A

degree to which an individual tends to make fine distinctions between various emotions vs making more global distinctions (ie. feeling bad vs feeling angry or jealous)

127
Q

alexithymia

A

difficulty describing an emotional experience

128
Q

functionalist view of emotions

A

the idea that emotions serve a functional purpose, such as directing attention, interpreting events, moving us to action, mobilizing resources, and providing social signalling

129
Q

functional value of fear

A

increases vigilance on threat related cues, focuses attention on identifying available resources, paths to escape, shifts motivational state and activates sympathetic nervous system

130
Q

functional value of shame

A

emotional response to threats to the social self, has physical attributes that are thought to serve as a social signal that appeases and reduces social conflict

131
Q

pro-inflammatory cytokinesis

A

inflammation is an immune system response to tissue damage or infection that is moderated by the molecule called to pro-inflammatory cytokinesis

132
Q

affect as information

A

the subjective experience of emotion used as information for problem solving and decision making

133
Q

focal emotions

A

emotions that are particularly common within a culture

134
Q

display rules

A

culturally specific rules that govern how, when, and to whom people express emotions

135
Q

emotional regulation

A

attempt to modify one or more aspects of emotion, five basic types include: situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation

136
Q

self control

A

ability to resolve conflict between two competing desires in service of long term goals

137
Q

stregth model of ego control

A

model in which self regulatory efforts are drawn from a finite pool of resources, and repeated demand for self control will deplete this will power

138
Q

three factors that influence happiness levels

A

life circumstances (10%), happiness set point (50%)(parts may be genetic), intentional activities

139
Q

affective forecasting

A

predicting what one’s emotional reactions to potential future events will be, (often inaccurate factors such as being unable to account for other things that will be going on at the time of the event)

140
Q

immune neglect

A

failure to take the effects of the psychological immune system ( which helps change our view of the world so that we feel better about it) into account when making affective forecasts

141
Q

focalism

A

tendency to focus too much on the event that we are making affective forecasts on, failing to consider other events that may be happening at the same time

142
Q

construal level theory

A

psychologically distant actions and events are thought about in abstract terms (higher level construal) while events that are close at hand are thought about in concrete terms (lower level construal)

143
Q

hedonic treadmill

A

when good and bad events affect happiness temporarily, people adapt quickly to return to their baseline levels of happiness (such as through the changing of expectations in response to event)

144
Q
A

psyc 100 (4 decks)

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