Midterm 2 Flashcards
Learning
process through which an experience comes to affect a future response
Nonassociative learning
type of learning where the strength of a response changes due to repeated stimulus. two types: habituation and sensitization
Associative learning
type of learning that involves making connections between stimuli and behaviours/consequences
habituation
reduction in response to a repeated stimulus that is unchanging and harmless
Dishabituation
reappearance of a response that had diminished through habituation, usually through the introduction of a new stimulus
sensitization
form of nonassociatve learning where repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to increased response over time
classical conditioning
conditioning that happens when a unconditioned stimulus is paired with a conditioned stimulus such that the unconditioned response generated by the unconditioned stimulus becomes associated with the conditioned stimulus, creating a conditoned response
operant conditioning
when behaviour is learned as a result of rewards or punishments
Dual Process theory
both habituation and sensitization are always at work, the dominant one will depend on the situation (ie. when aroused sensitization is more prevalent and when relaxed habituation is mre prevalent)
acquisition
initial learning of an association btw unconditioned and condition stimuli during classical conditioning
extinction
reduction of a learned response when a unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus
spontaneous recovery
reappearance of conditioned response after periods of rest during extinction
generalization
tendency to respond to stimuli that is similar to the original conditioned response
discrimination
learned ability to distinguish between stimuli (learning to respond to a particular stimuli but not to another similar one)
continguity
the condition such that conditioned stimuli and unconditioned stimuli must be presented close in time to each other for classical conditioning to work
contingency
the condition such that the conditioned stimulus must consistently precede the unconditioned stimulus for classical conditioning to work
blocking
previously learned association to one stimulus that prevents the learning of a new association (since the learning of the second response would not provide any predictive value and associations are only made toe eveets that are informative)
counterconditioning
technique used to replace an undesirable response to a stimulus with a more desirable one
fear conditioning
associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes linked to an aversive stimulus, resulting in a fear reaction to a previously neutral stimulus - involves the amygdala, which is also involved in conditioned reward due to being well positioned for creating connections between memory related and reflex mediating and autonomic brain structures
drug tolerance
decline in physiological and behavioural effects of a drug that is taken repeatedly (drug tolerance can be developed in part due to conditioning because the body reacts to other cues that signal the drug, therefore overdoses are more common in uncommon environments)
Preparedness
organisms are biologically predisposed to learn some associations more quickly than others (especially connections that may help them survive (ie. taste aversions to foods that were followed by sickness)
law of effect
behaviours that are followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated and vice versa
ABC of operant condiitoning
antecedents: situation or stimulus that precedes the behaviour and set the stage for the behaviour to happen
behaviour: voluntary action that takes place (operant response)
consequences: the stimuli that is presented after the behaviour will increase or decrease the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
Reinforcement
a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated
punishment
a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated
positive
stimulus is added to either punish or reinforce
negative
stimulus is removed to either punish or reinforce
primary reinforcers
consequences that innately pleasurable and do not have to be learned because they satisfy a biological need
secondary reinforcers
learned pleasures that acquire value through experience that associates them with primary reinforcers
shaping
operant conditioning procedure that successively closer approximations to the desired response are reinforced until the desired response occurs (can be used to teach complex behaviours)
instinctive dirft
animal’s reversion to evolutionary derived instinctual behaviours instead of demonstrating behaviour that is learned through conditioning
Immediate reinforcement
reinforcing a behaviour immediately after it occurs to help establish strong association between response and consequence
delayed reinforcement
when there is a delay between response and reinforcement association will be weaker
delay discounting
tendency to devalue delayed outcomes
continuous vs partial reinforcement
continuous: reinforcement schedule in which a behaviour is rewarded every time it is performed -> leads to faster acquisition but is also subject to rapid extinction when the rewards stop
partial reinforcement: reinforcement schedule in which a behaviour is rewarded only some of the time
fixed ratio vs variable ratio schedules
fixed ratio schedules: requires that a behaviour occur a set number of times before it is reinforced (behaviour will tend to decrease briefly after the reinforcer and increase as the individual approaches it)
variable ratio schedules
reinforcement occurs after some variable number of behaviours (less predictable but more effective to elicit consistent behaviour becasue it is less predictable
fixed interval schedule
reinforcement occurs after a set period of time after the first response (response pauses after reinforcement and increases sharply at the end of the interval)
variable interval schedule
reinforcement occurs after variable amount of time (leads ot slow and consistent responses because the reinforcers are unpredictable)
contingent reinforcement
reinforcement is only given when a specific behaviour occurs
non contingent reinforcement
reinforcement is delivered on a fixed interval schedule independent of the actions the organism is engaging in - causes superstitious conditioning in where a behaviour with no actual relationship with the reinforcement is learned
latent learning
learning that is not immediately demonstrated in an animals behaviour
- edward tolman: rewards affect what an animal does more than they affect what it learns
observational learning
learning through observing others rather than through personal experiences
social learning theory
theory that learning is a cognitive process derived from social observation rather than direct reinforcement of ones own actions
components of social learning
attention (models that get attention are more likely to elicit imitation), retention (must be able to retain memory of the models actions), reproduction (must be able to reproduce the models actions), motivation (must be motivated to reproduce behaviour), reinforcement or punishment (increase/decrease in a behaviour due to the observer witnessing the model being reinforced or punished)
mirror neurons
neurons found in cerebral cortex that are active both when preforming an action and when observing that action being preformed by someone else
Cultural transfer
transfer of info from one generation to another through teaching and learning (includes vertical and horizontal)
vertical transmission
transmission of skills from parent to offspring
horizontal transmission
transmission of skills between peers
insight learning
form of learning that occurs without trial and error and therefore without reinforcement. similar to an a-ha moment
diffusion chain
process where individuals learn by observing a model and then serves as a model so that others can learn the behaviour
conciousness
moment by moment awareness of ongoing experiences occurring internally and externally
arousal
component of consciousness that relates to the level of wakefulness or alertness
awareness
component of consciousness that focuses on and recognition of some experience
self awareness
focus and awareness of oneself as a distinct entity from other aspects of the environment
spotlight effect
conviction that others are paying more attention to oneself that they actually are
focused awareness
awareness is limited and must be rationed (ie through selective attention, which focuses awareness onto a particular stimuli while ignoring other irrelevant stimuli)
inattentional blindness
failure to perceive info outside the focus of ones attention
change blindness
form of inattentional blindness where a person fails to observe a change in a visual stimulus
mind wandering
spontaneous, stimulus independent thought) (ex. remebering the past, thinking about the future, fantasizing, etc)
perceptual decoupling
ability to shift attention from external environmental stimuli to internal stimuli or thoughts
automaticity
ability to preform a task without conscious awareness or attention (allows us to focus attention elsewhere or mind wander)
conscious
focus of current awareness
preconscious
thoughts feelings and memories that are not in current awareness but are consciously accessible
dynamic unconsious
inaccessible memories, instincts, and desires
cocktail party phenomenon
ability to pick up important information (such as someone saying your name) while focusing on other info
subliminal perception
processing of sensory info that occurs below the threshold of conscious awareness
mere exposure effect
tendency to like stimuli more after repeated exposure to them
brain regions that regulate arousal
reticular formation and thalamus
spatial hemi neglect
condition where individual loses awareness of objects/stimuli on one side of the space following brain damage
global workplace hypothesis
consciousness arises from “broadcasting” of information across a “global workspace” in the brain, where information from various brain regions are integrated and then shared
default mode network (DMN)
interconnected set of brain regions that are active when the mind is alert and aware but not focused on a particular task
locked in syndrome
complete paralysis of voluntary muscles but preservation of consciousness and normal cognitive activities (DMN connectivity did not decrease in patients with locked in syndrome contrary to patients who were brain damaged)
circadian rythm
body’s natural 24 hour cycle that regulates various physiological processes including the sleep wake cycle
zeitgeiber
external/environmental cue that helps regulate the circadian rhythm (ie light, food intake)
melatonin
important for regulating sleep and is produced by the pineal gland (secretion from evening till awakening)
suprachiasmatic nucleus
stimulated by light and regulates rhythmic secretion of certain hormones including melatonin
beta waves
low amplitude, high frequency -> brain is awake actively processing info
alpha waves
slower and larger waves -> brain is awake but relaxed
theta waves
high amplitude and slow, present in stage 1 and 2 (lighter) sleep
delta waves
slower and higher amplitude than theta waves, present in stage 3 and 4 (deep) sleep
k complexes and sleep spindles
special waveforms that are present in stage 2 and early stage 3 sleep
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
cortical and limbic system arousal
back and forth eye movement
sympathetic nervous system activation
vivid dreams
muscular paralysis
tldr: heightened activity in brain’s motor cortex but body muscles are paralyzed as brainstem blocks signals from motor cortex
rem behaviour disorder
occurs when brainstem does not block motor signals during rem sleep, causing people to act out their dreams (this is different than sleepwalking)
sleepwalking
occurs typically during deep sleep
Manifest vs latent content
manifest content: visible surface content of a dream or behaviour that disguises the hidden latent content of the dream
latent content: hidden drives and wishes that are revealed through dreaming
activation synthesis hypothesis
dreams are created when the brain attempts to organize the chaotic patterns of brain activity into a semicoherent narrative
psychoactive drugs
chemicals that influence consciousness or behaviour by altering the brain’s chemical signalling, contains of depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens
depressants
drugs that decrease activity levels in the nervous system and lower levels of arousal. (ie. alcohol, barbiturates, opioids)
stimulants
drugs that increase activity levels in the nervous system and alertness/energy (ie. caffeine, nicotine, cocaine)
hallucinogens
distorts sensory perception and can trigger sensory experiences such as sights and sounds in the absence of any sensory input (ie. LSD PCP, THC, mescaline)
(psychedelics are generally structurally similar to serotonin)
hypnosis
altered state of consciousness involving focused attention and reduced peripheral awareness, characterized by enhanced response to suggestion (may represent an extreme form of selective attention)
Hypnotic analgesia
the state of hypnosis can cause reduction in pain, manage stress and psychiatric symptoms, and produce behavioural changes such as quitting smoking
motive
Internal force that moves individuals to act in a certain way
instinct
innate motives that do not require learning and can be triggered by something in the environment
homeostasis
process by which organisms maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external envrionment
drive reduction theory
organisms are driven to engage in activities that reduce tensions and restore homeostasis
role of pain in motive
helps us avoid things that could cause tissue injury or death
sensory component of pain
specific information about what is happening (the feeling) (ie. there is a burning sensation on my hand) regulated by the somasensory cortex
affective component of pain
motivation for a specific response to pain regulated by the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and the anterior insula (ie. I need to move my hand away from the stove)
reward
describes something that is wanted, liked or serves as a reinforcer in learning
wanting
the desire for a reward categorized by a sense of anticipation, typically measured by the amount of effort that an individual will exert to obtain the reward. More associated with dopamine
liking
the subjective feeling of pleasure that is experienced when a reward is received. More associated with opioids
alliesthesia
the tendency of the reward value of a stimulus to increase with it’s effectiveness of that stimulus in restoring homeostasis (ie. food tastes better when you are hungry)
connections between reward and pain
opioids play a role in the modulation of both. pain may inhibit the perception of reward and vice versa
behavioural perspective on love
the theory that infants cling to their mothers because they associate her with food and other material rewards
Attachment theory
there exists a universal, evolved behavioural systme that motivates the maintenence of proximity to caregivers in infancy and childhood to promote survival
glucostatic hypothesis on hunger regulation
low glucose levels serve as hunger cue
lipostatic hypothesis of hunger regulation
body regulates food intake and energy expenditure over the long term based on the amount of stored fat (and their secretion of leptin)
role of hypothalamus in regulating appetite
the hypothalamus recieves signals related to levels of glucose, leptin, and other hunger and satiety hormones
dual centre theory
lateral hypothalamus sneds go signal while ventromedial hypothalamus sends stop signals through electrical stimulation
estrus
mammals period of heightened sexual receptivity and fertility, humans have a menstrual cycle rather than an estrus
role of testosterone is regulating sexuality
positively correlated with sexual interest in men
achievement motivation
desire to excel, succeed, or outperform others, may arise due to fear of failure or desire for success
approach motivation
propensity to move towards some desired stimulus (reward)
avoidance motivation
propensity to move away from an undesired stimulus (punishment)
performance orientation
motivational stance that focuses on performing well and looking smart, primarily avoidance, responds negatively to feedback
mastery orientation
motivational stance that focuses on learning and improving, primarily approach, reacts positively to feedback
fixed mindset
belief that intelligence and abilities are static and unchangeable, may cause individuals to avoid challenges to protect self image
growth mindset
belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through effort and learning, embraces feedback and challenges
heirarchy of needs
needs are arranged in hierarchical order and lower needs need to be satisfied before higher ones (order: physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, self actualization, self transcendence)
emotion (and its three components)
a complex reaction pattern to personally relevant events (such as physical and social challenges and opportunities). comprised of experiential, behavioural /expressive, and physiological elements
james lance theory of emotion
emotions are the result of perceiving bodily changes in response to some stimulus in the environment, such that stimulus -> physiological response -> emotional experience
cannon bard theory of emotion
critiques james lance theory by pointing out that the speed of bodily changes are not sufficient to produce the speed of the emotional experience. Also theories that bodily response and emotional experience can occur at the same time following a stimulus
schachter singer theory of emotion
emotional response is the result of an intrepretative label applied to a bodily response such that stimulus -> physiological response -> judgement -> emotional response
appraisals
our appraisals (interpretations of a situation) shape our emotional experience
emotional granularity
degree to which an individual tends to make fine distinctions between various emotions vs making more global distinctions (ie. feeling bad vs feeling angry or jealous)
alexithymia
difficulty describing an emotional experience
functionalist view of emotions
the idea that emotions serve a functional purpose, such as directing attention, interpreting events, moving us to action, mobilizing resources, and providing social signalling
functional value of fear
increases vigilance on threat related cues, focuses attention on identifying available resources, paths to escape, shifts motivational state and activates sympathetic nervous system
functional value of shame
emotional response to threats to the social self, has physical attributes that are thought to serve as a social signal that appeases and reduces social conflict
pro-inflammatory cytokinesis
inflammation is an immune system response to tissue damage or infection that is moderated by the molecule called to pro-inflammatory cytokinesis
affect as information
the subjective experience of emotion used as information for problem solving and decision making
focal emotions
emotions that are particularly common within a culture
display rules
culturally specific rules that govern how, when, and to whom people express emotions
emotional regulation
attempt to modify one or more aspects of emotion, five basic types include: situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation
self control
ability to resolve conflict between two competing desires in service of long term goals
stregth model of ego control
model in which self regulatory efforts are drawn from a finite pool of resources, and repeated demand for self control will deplete this will power
three factors that influence happiness levels
life circumstances (10%), happiness set point (50%)(parts may be genetic), intentional activities
affective forecasting
predicting what one’s emotional reactions to potential future events will be, (often inaccurate factors such as being unable to account for other things that will be going on at the time of the event)
immune neglect
failure to take the effects of the psychological immune system ( which helps change our view of the world so that we feel better about it) into account when making affective forecasts
focalism
tendency to focus too much on the event that we are making affective forecasts on, failing to consider other events that may be happening at the same time
construal level theory
psychologically distant actions and events are thought about in abstract terms (higher level construal) while events that are close at hand are thought about in concrete terms (lower level construal)
hedonic treadmill
when good and bad events affect happiness temporarily, people adapt quickly to return to their baseline levels of happiness (such as through the changing of expectations in response to event)
