Midterm 2 Flashcards
The pH scale quantifies the
_____ or ______ of a solution.
acidity or alkalinity
______have a pH of below 7
acids
_______ have a pH of above 7
bases
kinetic energy
the energy of motion
divergent plate boundaries
plates move apart as
magma rises to the surface and cools
rock
any solid aggregation of minerals
minerals
any naturally occurring solid element or inorganic
compound with a crystal structure, distinct chemical composition, and
physical properties
the rock cycle
Over time, rocks and their minerals
are heated, melted, cooled, broken
down, and reassembled
Rock that forms when lava or magma
cool is called
igneous rock
Minerals may seep through
them and cement particles
together,
sedimentary rock
earthquake
a sudden release of energy at a tectonic plate boundary
formed where molten rock, ash, or
hot gas erupts through the Earth’s surface
volcano
landslides
occur when large
amounts of rock or soil collapse
and flow downhill
a series of waves in a water body
caused by the displacement of a large volume
of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake
tsunami
a person’s or group’s
beliefs about the meaning, purpose,
operation, and essence of the world
world view
knowledge, beliefs, values, and learned ways of life shared
by a group of people
– Economics
– Religion and spiritual beliefs
– Similar experiences
– Individual interests
– Political ideology
culture
an individual with strong interests in the outcome of
a decision that results in gain or loss for that individual
vested interest
the
intimate knowledge of a particular environment possessed
and passed along by those who have inhabited an area for
many generations
– Medicinal properties of local plants
– Migration habits of local animals
– Geographic and microclimatic variations
Traditional or indigenous ecological knowledge
ethics
the study of good and bad, right and wrong
ethical standards
criteria that help differentiate right
from wrong
catagorial imperative
“Golden rule”; a type of ethical
standard
utilitarian principle
something right produces the most
benefits for the most people
intrinsic value
inherent right to exist
application of ethical standards to
relationships between human and non-human entities
Environmental ethics
we must meet our current needs without
compromising the availability of natural resources or the quality of life
for future generations
sustainable development
Anthropocentrism
only humans have rights
biocentrism
certain living things
also have value
ecocentrism
whole ecological
systems have value
Transcendentalism
viewed
nature as a direct manifestation
of the divine
holds that we should
protect the natural environment in a pristine,
unaltered state
preservation ethic
holds that humans should
put natural resources to use but also that we
have a responsibility to manage them wisely
conservation ethic
deep ecology
humans are inseparable
from nature
– since all living things have equal value,
they should be protected
The Land Ethic” in 1949
– humans should view themselves and
“the land” as members of the same
community
Aldo Leopold
ecofeminism
the patriarchal structure of society is the
root cause of both social and environmental problems
the study of how people decide to use scarce
resources to provide goods and services in the face of
demand for them
economics
people get their daily needs directly from
nature; they do not purchase or trade
substance economy
buyers and sellers interact to
determine prices and production of goods and services
capitalist market economy
mixed economy
governments intervene to some extent
takes a holistic view of the
linkages between environment and economy, applying the
principles of ecology to the study of economics.
ecological economics
essential services support the life
that makes economic activities possible
Environment and Economy Are Intricately
Linked
ecosystem services
cost-benefit analysis
the costs of a proposed action are
compared to the benefits that result from the action
Four of the fundamental assumptions of neoclassical
economics have implications for the environment:
- Resources are infinite or substitutable.
– 2. Long-term effects should be discounted.
– 3. Costs and benefits are internal.
– 4. Growth is good.
Ecological economists argue that ……
civilizations do not overcome their
environmental limitations in the long run
Environmental economists argue that….
economies are unsustainable
if population growth is not reduced and resource use is not made more
efficient and within capacity of the environment
economies that do not grow and
do not shrink but rather are stable and mirror natural
ecological systems
steady state economy
total monetary value of final goods
and services produced in a country
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
differentiates between desirable
and undesirable economic activity
Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI)
greenwashing
consumers are misled
into thinking companies are acting sustainably
the idea that a
resource held in common that is accessible to all and
is unregulated will eventually become overused and
degraded
the tragedy of commons
a government giveaway of cash or resources to
encourage a particular activity
subsidy
green taxes
taxes on environmentally harmful activities
tells consumers which brands use
environmentally benign processes
ecolabelling
the IPAT model
represents how our total impact
(I) on the environment results from the interaction
of population (P), affluence (A), and technology
demography
Principles of population ecology can be applied to
the study of statistical changes in the human
population
Demographers study several characteristics of the
human population:
Size
Distribution
Age structure
Sex ratio
Rates of birth, death, emigration, and
immigration
describe the relative numbers of
individuals in each age class within a population
Age structure diagrams
population pyramids
A pyramid with a wide base denotes a potential for
rapid future growth
A pyramid with an even age distribution indicates
a stable population
A pyramid with a narrow base indicates
a shrinking population
migration
describes the
movement of individuals
between countries
immigration
is people
entering a country.
emigration
is people
leaving a country.
the average number
of children born per woman during her lifetime.
Total fertility rate (TFR)
the TFR that keeps
the size of a population stable. For humans,
this is 2.1
replacement fertility
the average
number of years a person in an age group is
expected to live, due to a drop in infant
mortality.
life expectancy
Countries still industrializing will pass through a
series of stages of economic and cultural
change
demographic transition
During the pre-
industrial stage,
death rates are high
due to widespread
disease,
rudimentary health
care, and unreliable
food supplies
Death rates
decline during
the….
transitional period
The population
growth stabilizes
or begins to
shrink during the
post industrial stage
the effort to plan the number
and spacing of one’s children
family planning
contraception
is a deliberate attempt to prevent
pregnancy despite engaging in sexual intercourse
birth control
ncludes all efforts to reduce the
frequency of pregnancy
If humanity’s ecological footprint exceeds Earth’s
biocapacity, it is termed an ——-
if the footprint is less, there is an —– ——
ecological deficit.
ecological reserve
soil
a system consisting of
disintegrated rock, organic
matter, water, gases,
nutrients, and microorganisms
mycorrhizae
form mutualistic relationships
with plants
Parent material is broken down into smaller particles by
weathering
results from wind, rain, freezing, and
thawing
physical weathering
occurs as water or gases chemically
alter rock.
chemical weathering
nvolves living things such as
lichens producing acid or tree roots rubbing against rock
biological weathering
Partially decomposed organic matter in soil is called
humus
Weathering and the accumulating of organic
matter are influenced by
climate
topography
organisms
parent material
The movement and sorting of soil particles
create distinct layers called
soil horizons
The entire cross-section of soil is the
soil profile
Minerals dissolved or suspended in water can
be transported downward in a process called
leaching
order of horizons
- O, A, B,C,R,W, PERMAFROST
O horizon
peat deposits
A horizon
topsoilB
B horizon
subsoil,
hardpan
C horizon
broken parent
material
R horizon
unaltered
parent material
W horizon
distinct layer
of water in some soils
Permafrost layer (horizon)
some arctic
soils contain a perennially
frozen layer
particles are the
smallest, less than 0.002
millimeter in diameter.
clay
is the largest, between
0.05 and 2 millimeter in diameter
sand
particles fall in between
clay and sand
slit
Soil with an even mixture of
each particle is called
loam
have few pore spaces and
are sticky, making it difficult for air
and water to pass through
clay soils
allow water to pass
through too quickly, requiring
frequent irrigation
Sandy soils
with medium-sized pores
are considered the best for
agriculture
loam soils
land used for grazing
livestock
rangeland
land used to raise plants for human
use (food, animals and biofuels) – most of food
and fiber
cropland
Subsistence (Traditional)
the work of cultivating, harvesting, and distributing
crops was performed by human and animal muscle power
a) Low capital and energy input
b) More land area and human labour
c) Shifting cultivation, slash and burn, nomadic
Industrialization (modern)
large-scale mechanization and fossil fuel consumption
into agriculture.
a) Higher capital/yield, energy input, irrigation, synthetic
fertilizers, chemical pesticides
b) Less land area and human labour
c) Monoculture – required to be efficient
Material & energy intensive
Requires:
Machinery
Fuels
Commercial fertilizers
Water
Commercial pesticides
was a period of technology transfer initiatives
that saw greatly increased crop yields, began in the early 20th
century and spread globally until the late 1980s
green revolution
sustainable agriculture
is farming in such a way to
protect the environment, aid and expand natural
resources and to make the best use of nonrenewable
resources
he artificial provision of
water beyond what is
received by precipitation is
irrigation
fertilizers
contain nutrients (N,P,K,..)
essential for plant growth
inorganic fertilizers
are mined (P)
or synthetically manufactured (N)
organic fertilizers
are made of the
remains or wastes from organisms,
including manure, crop residue,
charcoal, fresh vegetation, and
compost
composT
is a mixture produced
when decomposers break down
organic matter in a controlled
environment.
is the practice of
monitoring soil nutrient levels and only applying
fertilizer when it is needed
PRECISION AGRICULTURE
is the process by
which male plant sex cells
(pollen) fertilize female plant
sex cells (ova, or egg cells)
pollination
institutions that preserve seed types to
preserve this genetic diversity
seed banks
Land degrations
a deterioration of land that
diminishes its productivity and biodiversity and impairs the functioning of its ecosystems
soil degration
is the
deterioration in quality and
productivity of soil
the removal of material from one place
and its transport to another by wind or water
erosion
deposition
When eroded material is left at a new location
desertification
a land degradation
where more than 10% of productivity is lost
the process of farmers alternating the type of
crop grown from one season to the next
crop rotation
creates level platforms on very
steep terrain to slow water erosion.
terracing
involves planting
alternating bands of different crops.
intercropping
are rows of trees or
shrubs that serve as windbreaks
shelterbelts
educes the amount of
plowing, since it leaves soil surfaces bare and exposed
to wind
conservation tillage
farming eliminates tilling altogether, leaving
crop residues behind
no till
the guarantee of an adequate,
safe, nutritious, and reliable food supply
food security
lack regular access to enough safe and
nutritious food for normal growth and development and an
active and healthy life
lack regular access to enough safe and
nutritious food for normal growth and development and an
active and healthy life
a shortage of specific nutrients,
such as lipids, proteins, vitamins, or minerals
malnutrition
receiving too many calories per
day) has grown in developing countries due to the
abundance of cheap junk food and sedentary
lifestyles
overnutrition
huge pens designed to
provide high-energy feed to animals
living in high densities
feedlots
any organism that damages crops or
livestock
pest
any plant that competes with crops
weed
include synthetic chemicals that kill
insects (insecticides), plants (herbicides), and fungi
(fungicides).
pesticides
biological control
here natural
predators or parasites are
introduced to eliminate the
pest.
combines
biocontrol, chemical pesticides, habitat alteration,
crop rotation, transgenic crops, alternative tillage
methods, and mechanical pest removal
integrated pest management
refers to any process where scientists
directly manipulate an organism’s genetic material (D N A)
genetic engineering
involves the selection by
humans of organisms that have desirable traits
Traditional selective breeding
the use of radiation to increase mutation
rates in organisms to allow the emergence of new traits more
quickly.
mutagenesis
An organism with DNA from another species is called
transgenic
For crops to be considered organic . . .
he land must be free of prohibited substances for 3 years.
Crops must not be genetically engineered.
Crops must not be irradiated to kill bacteria.
Sewage sludge cannot be used.
Organic seeds and planting stock are preferred.
examines all inputs and
outputs across all stages of an item’s production,
sale, and use to determine fossil fuel consumption
lifecycle analysis
the practice of growing plants in
water-based nutrient-rich solutions instead of soil
hydroponics
the variety of life across all levels of
biological organization (genes through
ecosystems)
biodiversity
a set of organisms that share unique
characteristics, can breed, and produce fertile
offspring.
species
species diversity
the number or
variety of species in the world or in a
particular region
the
number and variety of ecosystems
ecosystem diversity
where different types
of habitats intermix
ecotones
is searching for organisms that might provide new foods,
medicines, or other products
bioprospecting
if a keystone species like a top predator is lost,
consequences
will cascade down the entire food chain
If an ecosystem engineer is lost,
the entire structure of an
ecosystem can change.
species that are of particular concern because
of characteristics that make them particularly sensitive to
human activities or natural events
vulnerable
the loss of a species from one
area, but not the entire world
extirpation
the pace
at which organisms independently go extinc
background extinction rate
abitat loss most commonly
occurs through gradual,
piecemeal degradation called
__________________
* This makes habitats smaller
and prevents movement of
organisms between habitats
habitat fragmentation
prioritizes regions most important
globally for biodiversity
Biodiversity hotspots
forest
any ecosystem with a high density of trees
high-latitude, cold, dry climates with short growing seasons
boreal forest
temperate forest
mid-latitude forest, seasonal climate with winter vs.
summer growing season
equatorial-latitude forest, wet, tropical climate
tropical forests
classifications of forests based on their predominant tree
species
forest types
the upper level of leaves and branches in the treetops
canopy
the middle portion of the forest
subcanopy
The shaded lower level consisting of shrubs and small trees
understory
contains groundcover plants.
forest floor
natural forest left uncut by people
primary forest
have
sprouted and grown to partial maturity since the old-growth trees
were cut
secondary forests
greements to pay off a developing
country’s debt in exchange for preserving forests
debt for nature swaps
the practice of managing society’s demand for
forests against maintaining them as ecosystems
forestry
where all the
trees are cut at once
clear cutting
leaves some seed-producing trees to
reseed the harvested area.
seed tree approach
eaves some mature trees behind to
shelter growing seedlings
shelterwood approach
maintain uneven-aged stands by removing
only some trees.
shelter maintain
a field that assesses environmental factors
(or hazards – 4 types: cultural, physical, biological and chemical) that
can influence our health and quality of life
environmental health
result from the place we live, our socioeconomic status, our
occupation, our behavioral choices (e.g., smoking, drug use, crime, etc.
cultural environmental hazards
Infectious and noninfectious diseases cause the majority
of human deaths worldwide
biological disease
toxic chemicals manufactured in tissues of
living organisms, often used as defense against others
toxins
indoor chemical hazards
asbestos
radon
PBDEs
lead poisoning
the study of the effects of poisonous
substances on humans and other organism
toxicology
examines the environmental factors that
can influence the exposure of organisms to contaminants
and potential effects
ecotoxicology
maximum dose with no discernable effects, and is
observed when the body’s organs can metabolize or excrete a
toxicant at low doses but get overwhelmed at high doses
threshold level
carcinogens
substances or
types of radiation that cause cance
ubstances that cause genetic mutations in the D N A
of organisms
mutagens
specifically cause birth defect
teratogens
overactivate the immune system, causing an immune
response when one is not necessary
allergens
things like heavy metals that damage the nervous system
neurotoxins
block one or more steps in important
biochemical pathways
pathway inhibitors
the introduction of contaminants into an environment that
causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem; i.e.,
physical systems or living organism
pollution
large-scale comparisons
among groups of people
– Involve tracking groups of people for a long period of
time and looking for observable differences in rates of
deaths, cancer, and other health problems
epidemiological studies
Chemical mixtures interact by:
Additivity
Response = sum of individual effects
– Synergy
Response > sum of individual effects
– Antagonism
Response < sum of individual effects
* Complicates interpretation of multiple chemical
exposure studies
the quantitative measurement of risk and the
comparison of risks involved in different activities or substances
risk assessment
product manufacturers must
prove a product is safe
innocent until proven guilty approach
substances are harmful until they
are shown to be harmless
precautionary principle approach
