Midterm 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is a social category?
A
A mental representation of a group of people based on features that characterize them. People belong to many categories.
Can help us navigate world but can also be harmful.
Ex: We can infer physical social groups (skin colour, age, gender) but some are not directly visible (personality, …)
2
Q
Name the three steps required to stereotype a person.
A
- Social categorization (classifying a person)
- Stereotype activation (how accessible a stereotype is in one’s mind)
- Stereotype application (how much it is used to judge or act towards members of target group)
3
Q
TRUE or FALSE.
We encode race and gender within 50 ms.
A
FALSE.
We tend to encode it within 300 MS for both.
4
Q
What were the findings of Ito when studying ERPs (event-related potentials)?
A
In a study where white participants identified black vs white people and also identified their gender, Ito found that race can be encoded as quick as 100 MS and gender 200 MS.
These identifications are automatic and outside of our control.
5
Q
What is an exemplar?
A
An exemplar is basically know examples of a given category.
Ex: White women, Black women, Latina women
6
Q
What happens when an individual is difficult to categorize (does not fit typical exemplars)?
A
We are motivated to socially categorize and we feel discomfort when we can’t. Misidentifying people can also be hurtful to them and their sense of self.
This brings it back to the study on conservatives and ambiguous faces. It is important to note that this discomfort may be present in everyone to a certain degree.
7
Q
What is prototypicality?
A
It is the extent to which a person fits the observer’s concept of the essential characteristics of a social category. Is the person a match with what we expect to see when thinking of a specific category.
People higher in prototypicality are more easily identifiable and face increased stereotyping.
Ex: Tessa Thompson fits within the white, black and latina category, her appearance is less prototypical for each of these categories.
8
Q
Discuss Eberhardt’s study on prototypicality.
A
The study examined whether prototypical black men were more likely to get the death penalty for murder using archival data.
The results indicated that those high in prototypicality were more likely to get the death penalty (56%) than those low on the measure (24%).
While the study tried to control for many variables, it is important to consider whether those high in prototypicality faced more challenges likely leading them down the path of criminality in the first place.
More lab studies on the concept were needed to exemplify the concept of prototypicality.
9
Q
Ma & Correll conducted a laboratory study on prototypically. What was it and what were the findings?
A
They used the shooter bias concept and exemplified that people made more errors when a white person was holding a gun and when a black person was holding an object that was not a gun.
They then added the moderating factor of prototypicality, which demonstrated that the results above were most likely to be seen in those high in prototypicality (so higher errors for black people holding a non-gun object if more prototypical).
This exemplified that people rely more heavily on stereotypes for prototypical faces.
10
Q
TRUE or FALSE.
Identities that are more visible are less likely to be socially categorized and discriminated against.
A
FALSE.
When it is easier to socially categorize someone, we are more likely to use available stereotypes.
11
Q
In what ways can visible identities be seen without the use of our eyes?
A
Visibility can be based on all of our senses, it is based on cues in the situation.
Ex: People use the voice of a person to decide whether this person is gay or not, even though this information is an inaccurate stereotype for gay men.
12
Q
What 2 things are most important for social categorization?
A
- Situation (determines which categories are most salient)
- Context (our goals determine what we are looking for)
Ex: At a football game you are looking for a person that supports the same team you do, you will be looking for someone who is wearing the same colours as you. Race + Gender less easily categorized.
13
Q
What would exceptions in a social category be called?
A
A Subtype
14
Q
What is re-fencing (Allport)?
A
It is when a fact cannot fit into the typical characteristics of the social group, so we create a new fence to encompass those who display these different characteristics. In this way, we still keep them within the original social group.
Ex: Black people (not ambitious) and black politicians (ambitious)
15
Q
What is Fiske’s Stereotype Content Model?
A
It is a model that states that all stereotypes form along two dimensions:
1. Warmth (will they harm of help me)
2. Competence (can they act on their intentions)
These dimensions are fundamental to person perception with evolutionarily adaptive benefits.
16
Q
What are the 4 dimensions of Fiske’s Stereotype Content Model?
A
- Admiration - High in warmth and competence
Ex: Tom Hanks - Contempt - Low in warmth and competence
Ex: Homeless people
These people are the most negatively treated. - Pity - High in warmth and low in competence
Ex: Children - Envy - Low in warmth but high in competence
Ex: Rich people
17
Q
While Fiske’s model was the dominating model for a while, what did Koch discover for stereotypes?
A
Koch discovered a third dimension to add to the model of warmth and competence:
- Ideology
(Conservative/ Progressive & Traditional / Non- Trad)
18
Q
Describe the relationship between ideology, warmth and competence in terms of Koch’s addition to the theory.
A
Competence is independent of ideology.
Groups more similar to your ideology are seen as warmer and those less similar are seen as colder.
19
Q
What is the racial position model (Zou & Cheryan)?
A
A model that is solely currently applicable to the U.S. It states that racial/ethnic minority groups within the U.S are perceived along two dimension (instead of warmth and competence).
- Inferiority
- Cultural Foreigness
This goes beyond positive and negative feelings and expressions of negativity vary based on these dimensions.
20
Q
Name the 4 positions based on the racial position model and which race is associated with which position (Zou & Cheryan).
A
- Superior and Foreign - Asians
- Superior and American - White
- Inferior and American - Black
- Inferior and Foreign - Latinx
21
Q
In terms of the racial position model, what do these dimensions help us understand?
A
- Perceived discrimination, which is essentially why some minority groups are more likely to experience discrimination on one basis but not the other.
Ex: Claude Steel has a PHD, as a black man he still gets comments on how articulate he is, which conveys the view that he is inferior. - Perceptions of group threats.
How based on their placement, the threat to other groups differs.
Ex: Asian Americans are perceived as competing for high paying jobs (superior so threat to high status job security) - Strategic use of stereotypes
Ex: Barack Obama was difficult to portray as inferior, so they tried to utilize the foreign dimension as his parents were born in Kenya.
22
Q
Describe some key points of Linda Zou’s interview.
A
She discussed her interest in how different racial. groups relate to one another. She had specific interests for black and asian relations.
She notes how the racial position model may be potentially applicable outside of the US or even for dimensions such as religion but not really for age or gender (double jeopardy).
She also notes that history is important to understand dimensions of foreignness and inferiority and that group positions can be dynamic. It is possible to change positions (ex: asians today vs in the 1800’s) but that it may not necessarily be likely.
Also discussed a study on how applicants for jobs may be accepted or rejected based on how “fitting” they are for a job (based on racial stereotypes).
Ex: For a high status job, an asian would be taken over a black person
She wants future studies to focus on intra-minority relations (how they collaborate and conflict) and also studies on intersectionality.
23
Q
The outgroup homogeneity effect is an antecedent of stereotyping. What is it?
A
Tendency to perceive more similarity in outgroups than ingroups.
24
Q
What are the mechanisms behind the outgroup homogeneity effect?
A
- Quantity of contact (we interact more with ingroup)
- Quality of contact (ingroup typically higher quality)
- Motivation to be distinct (see ingroup as more unique)
- Motivation to dehumanize (in some cases to maintain superiority)
25
The cross race effect is an antecedent of stereotyping. What is it?
The tendency to more easily recognize & remember own-race faces compared to cross-race faces. This is a consequence of outgroup homogeneity.
Related to both one's motivation and ability to attend to outgroup faces.
Ex: Cross-race effects & police line-ups
26
What did sangrigoli et al. demonstrate in terms of the cross-race effect?
That it is not solely about what you look like.
Children adopted from Korea living in France recognized caucasian faces more correctly than they did asian faces, suggesting that exposure in your environment plays in important role in facial memory.
27
What is an attribution?
The process of explaining the causes of behaviour or events.
Dispositional attribution vs situational attribution
28
What is the fundamental attribution error and how can it lead to stereotyping?
Tendency to explain our own and other people's behavior in terms of dispositional traits that than situational characteristics.
If our ingroup does something positive:
- Dispositional
If our ingroup does something negative:
- Situational
The opposite is seen for the outgroup. People will make stereotypes about whole groups based on behaviours observed.
29
What is the illusory correlation and how does it lead to stereotyping?
When people see two distinctive events and they assume the events are correlated.
People assume group membership and behaviour are associated when:
- A person's group stands out
AND
- A person's behaviour stands out
What stands out the most are minority groups and negative behaviours.
Ex: Arab-muslims are terrorists (while statistically a white person is more likely to be a terrorist)
30
How are stereotypes transmitted?
- Social learning (direct or indirect)
- Media Influence which builds certain associations in our minds (black people 20% of criminal activity but 40% of suspects pictured on news broadcasts)
31
Name examples of how the media affects our perception of minorities and stereotypes.
- Black people 20% of criminal activity but 40% of suspects pictured on news broadcasts)
- Black people are portrayed as poor by news networks (27% really but 63% of those portrayed)
- Negative correlation of estimates of black income the more news a person a watched and also higher stereotyping
- Children who watch TV more show stronger racial stereotypes and adults stronger stereotypes for black and muslims (this is correlational).
32
TRUE or FALSE.
Media seems to not actually make a difference, as in a study, a commercial portrayed a woman either occupying a traditional or non traditional gender role and in both situations women chose similarly.
FALSE.
The traditional commercial seeing gender stereotypes caused women to reduce expressed career ambitions.
33
Discuss the interview with Gordon Moskowitz.
He is interested in how to mitigate stereotypes and prejudice. Some people may have egalitarian beliefs but in terms of goals it may not be the biggest priority for them.
We can set ourselves up to be more egalitarian by:
- Setting up our environment
- Perspective taking
- Forming specific goals
He is pessimistic in the short term and optimistic about the long term study of disrupting stereotypes.
He would like to see progress in applying science to real world issues, specifically health and financial domain.
34
What is dehumanization?
Perceptions of people as lacking the mental or physical capacities of regular human beings.
Some older approaches entailed granting everyone primary emotions but the denial of secondary emotions to outgroup (denying "full" human experience for both pos. and neg. emotions).
Historically, black individuals have been often dehumanized (13th amendement slaves counting as 3/5 of a person)
35
Discuss the implicit examples of dehumanization (study by Chas et al., 2018).
Study of 3 groups of children (1st, 5th & 6th grade) measured associations between ingroup and outgroup names with human vs animal words.
IAT showed ingroup/human and outgroup/animal associations.
In follow-up study, children asked to connect each name with a single word (animal or human). Participants chose animal words for outgroup more than for ingroup.
36
Who conducted the first study on blatant dehumanization and what was it?
Bandura
Participants supervised a 3 person group, if group made wrong decision gave them a shock.
Participants either heard experimenter
- Humanize the group (understanding)
- Dehumanize group (devalue them)
- Neutral (no description)
Dehumanization lead to more aggression, which was measured by intensity of shocks given and humanization was least aggressive.
37
In terms of the "Ascent of Man" study where individuals rate how human people think groups are, which groups were rated as "less human" than Americans?
- Chinese
- South Korean
- Mexican
- Arab
- Muslim
38
What are some associations of blatant dehumanization in terms of policy beliefs for arabs and muslims?
- Immigrant opposition
- Less Helping
- Support military aggression
- Drone strike support
*Blatant dehumanization remains a predictor of policy beliefs after controlling for measures of explicit anti-muslim prejudice.
39
When does dehumanization occur?
When there are threats to the ingroup --> More dehumanization occurs (also higher instances of hate crimes and aggression)
Ex: Higher dehumanization of arabs following Boston marathon bombing.
40
What are some associations of blatant dehumanization in terms of the refugee crisis for arabs and muslims?
- Anti-refugee policy support
- Less asylum support
- Sign anti-refugee petition
Results persist after controlling for traditional measures of prejudice.
41
Are subtle dehumanization, blatant dehumanization and prejudice all the same concept?
They are all related but distinct.
42
What is meta-dehumanization?
How you feel when you recognize that other people are dehumanizing you or your ingroup.
Dehumanization and meta-dehumanization creates a vicious cycle, as those being dehumanized will also dehumanize and support violent forms of intergroup conflict.
43
TRUE or FALSE.
Higher power groups can also feel meta-dehumanized.
TRUE.
Privileged high power groups feel meta-dehumanized by minority low power groups and will reciprocate with dehumanization.
44
What are mechanistic forms of dehumanization?
When individuals are dehumanized but are not seen "animal" like. They are seen as more mechanistic or robotic. This is a form of dehumanization that asians are often victims of.
This is measured using a mechanistic dehumanization scale rather than the ascent of man scale. The sae participants will dehumanize black individuals animalistically and dehumanize asians mechanistically (Bai & Zhao).
45
In terms of hiring implications, what have Bai and Zhao observed in terms of dehumanization?
When participants were asked to hire an individual based on certain stereotypical traits, they tended to avoid asians for jobs that required less mechanical traits and they tended to avoid black individuals for jobs that required less animalistic traits.
46
TRUE or FALSE.
A radio show showing reduced hostility between christians and muslims in Nigeria helped reduce intergroup hostility (lower dehumanization and support of violence). This has lead to greater initiatives to portray this in the media.
TRUE.
47
Discuss the interview with Nour Kteily.
His work focuses on social hierarchies and mechanisms that uphold them.His source of inspiration to study this came from grad school.
He states that the ingredients for blatant dehumanization are:
- Power/status differentials
- Conflict/exploitation
Some small minority feel the motivation to express dehumanization (which is separate from prejudice).
Our implicit associations of dehumanization may be outside of our awareness and different than our explicit beliefs.
He hopes for more solidarity between dehumanized groups in the future and wonders what would happen if there was a reversal in power hierarchies.
48
What makes sexism different than other forms of discrimination?
Men and women are generally differentiated in biology and strongly differentiated in social roles. However, relationships between men and women are complicated by sexual reproduction which creates dependency and intimacy between the sexes.
Women are also not a numerical minority but they are economically disadvantaged. Straightforward accounts of ingroup favouritism and outgroup hatred don't apply.
49
What is hostile sexism?
Antagonistic negative attitudes towards women, characterized by beliefs such as:
- Women are enemies
- Women seek to control men
- Women use sex to exploit men
- Women demand too much
50
What is benevolent sexism?
Subjectively positive attitudes and beliefs about women that justify traditional gender roles. It is overall positive attitude towards women but has negative implications.
Characterized by beliefs such as:
- Women are pure and good
- Women ought to be protected
- Women ought to be cared for
- Women nurture children and men through adversity
51
Why does benevolent sexism matter?
The underpinnings lie in stereotyping women as inferior and men as superior.
Countries with higher levels of benevolent sexism among the population also have more gender inequality.
Also, women with stronger benevolent sexism belief
a) Are less resistant to discrimination
b) Have lower educational and career goals for themselves
c) Take on more unpaid labour
It also allows men to characterize their privileges as deserved.
52
What is ambivalent sexism?
The combination of hostile and benevolent sexism.
Both forms of sexism work together to provide incentives for people to remain in traditional gender roles.
- Hostile sexism punishes women who challenge the status quo.
- Benevolent sexism rewards women who embrace traditional gender roles.
53
What are prescriptive norms?
Norms on how people SHOULD behave.
Ex: Women should be kind, warm and nurturing
Prof shows examples of women headlines in journals (Yvonne Brill is world's best mom before pioneering rocket scientist)
54
What are backlash effects?
Social and economic penalties for acting counter-stereotypically.
Women must disconfirm female stereotypes in order to be perceived as competent leaders. However, people have NEGATIVE reactions towards ambitious and capable women.
They are seen as socially deficient, which can lead to punishment and discrimination.
55
What are the two dimensions of the stereotype content model?
Warmth and competency
Warm women are seen as less capable and competent women are seen as less likeable, more hostile and less of a team player.
(Double-jeopardy in female perception)
56
What is a person's sex?
An organism's biological status, typically categorized as male, female or intersex.
57
What is gender?
Thoughts, feelings and behaviours that a culture associates with masculinity and femininity.
Gender identity is a person's sense of their own gender. Cisgender is corresponding to one's birth sex and transgender is gender identity that differs from one's own birth sex.
58
What is non-binary?
Gender identities that are not exclusively masculine of feminine.
A person can be multiple genders, no gender, fluctuating gender or other genders.
59
What was the TransYouth Project and what did they find?
It is the first lab that actively studies gender dev in transgender children. They compared trans youth to their siblings and unrelated children to see if there were any differences.
Findings: Trans children were unlikely to change their minds after 5 years and trans children expressed preferences consistent with the gender for 3 different measurement points (did not differ from controls).
These findings were consistent irregardless of how long they had been living as the current gender.
These findings demonstrate that identity develops early, it is not necessarily determined by sex and that they will hold on to this identity even if it conflicts with other people's expectations.
60
TRUE or FALSE.
Trans policies within the united states have an effect on prejudice towards transgender individuals.
TRUE.
The harder it is for an individual to transition within a given state, the more likely there are to be negative prejudices.
Both implicit and explicit anti-transgender attitudes were higher in states with more discriminatory laws.
61
TRUE or FALSE.
Laws can influence what people think is the social norm.
TRUE.
Following the legalization of gay marriage in all states, people reported that being LGB was more acceptable socially. It did not change their personal support f or same-sex marriage but it changed their perception of norms surrounding same-sex marriage.
Decreased bias towards LGB following legalization.
62
Why is ageism considered a special case?
People tend to not always feel the age they actually are, as they grow older many people feel younger than they actually are.
There are different factors associated with age, like social roles, family relations, power differentials and age/ generational identity.
63
What is benevolent agism?
Subjectively positive attitudes and beliefs about people on the basis of age, that justify paternalistic care and the status quo.
Beliefs for the old such as:
- Older people are physically weak
- Mentally impaired
- Lonely
- Sociable and warm
Beliefs for the young such as:
- Outgoing and fun
- Succumb to peer pressure
- Lack mental faculties and knowledge
- Emotionally undeveloped
64
In the study by Ahmed, Anderson et al., what were the findings in terms of ageism and discrimination?
The fake applicants were either 31 or 46 years old. The younger applicant was 4x more likely to receive an interview for sales assistant job and 3x more likely for a restaurant job.
This pattern held for whether the job was full or part time, temporary or permanent.
65
TRUE or FALSE.
In terms of implicit attitudes around age, those who are younger are rated as better.
TRUE.
Overall, even among older adults younger people are raterd as better.
66
Which two groups among these 4 seem to have the highest level of tension?
1. Boomer
2. Silent
3. Gen X
4. Millenial
Millennials and Boomers
They see each other as having the highest level of threat to their age group.
Boomers see Mill. --> Symbolic Threat
Do not uphold our values
Mill. see boomers --> Realistic threat
They take more than they give
67
In a study concerning egalitarianism, there were correlations between egalitarianism advocacy and anti-SDO. However, this correlation was NOT seen for hostile agism, why?
Older people are seen as "opportunity blockers" that prevent other under-represented groups from getting ahead. This "justifies" frustration and ageism.
68
What are the different dimensions of disabilities that affect how individuals are treated?
- Visibility
- Controllability
- Disruptiveness
- Aesthetic qualities
- Peril
69
TRUE or FALSE.
People report positive general attitudes towards people with disabilities.
TRUE.
However, other measures show strong prejudice. People say they are less willing to be with a PWD, people show implicit preferences for abled people and PWD report experiences of discrimination.
70
TRUE or FALSE.
People with mental illness are not linked to feelings of peril and they are seen favourably as the condition they are faced with is deemed outside of their control/
FALSE.
People see mental illness as controllable and some types are seen as dangerous.
This stigma reduces the likelihood that people will seek treatment.
71
What is the halo effect?
Attractive people are thought to have more positive qualities but this may be the result of self-fulfilling prophecy.
This effect is seen in terms of social skill development and job applications (hotter = more callback)
72
Why is paler skin for a black person seen as better and darker skin for a white person seen as better?
Black person: historically darker skin tone meant you were working in the sun all day. Lighter skin meant you were more privileged.
White person today: It means you have the means to go on vacation, going to the beach, ...
73
TRUE or FALSE.
Controlling for criminal history, trial conviction, private attorney, crime type and other factors, skin colour was the only determinant of probably of imprisonment.
FALSE.
Skin tone and whether a person had afro-centric features. White people with afro-centric features were more likely to be imprisoned.
74
What is special about weight stigma?
Overweight people are assumed to be personally responsible for their weight.
Weight discrimination is common and not seen as personally problematic as in other domains (religion, race,...).
People are motivated not to discriminate on race/disability but are less motivated for weight. Also, overtime there seems to have been slight to no changes in terms of weight biases, unlike SO, race and disability.
75
Who is more vulnerable to weight stigma and what mental health outcomes are associated?
Women, they suffer greater discrimination and are judged to be overweight at lower levels.
Lower self-esteem, depression and suicide.
76
What are the ironic effects of weight stigma observed by Hunger et al.?
Those higher in perceived weight following exposure to weight stigma information later consumed more calories and had weaker beliefs about dietary control.
77
What are some areas that are currently growing in stigma research?
- Androgyny
- Singlehood
- Consensual non-monogamy
- Voluntary childlessness
78
TRUE or FALSE.
Social norms can inform individuals on whether or not it is acceptable to act discriminatorily.
TRUE.
Following the election of Trump, hate crimes almost tripled the day following the election.
There is a bidirectional influence, social norms influence hate crimes and hate crimes inform us of social norms.
79
TRUE or FALSE.
Social norms can also influence the way we see our own self-reported measure of prejudice.
TRUE.
Following Trump's election, based on specific groups he targeted during his election, people viewed themselves as less prejudiced to these groups based on comparing themselves to Trump before and after election.
However, they viewed prejudice as more normatively acceptable (changing their view of acceptable social norms). This increases the likelihood of prejudice occurring, as the bar for what is acceptable is lower.
80
In the study of UoW, exposure to messages about social norms of combatting prejudice increased perceptions of an inclusive environment.
What do results surrounding disadvantaged students and advantaged students indicate?
Disadvantaged students felt that their peers treated them with more respect and behaved more inclusively.
Advantaged students did not self-report behaving in a more respectful or inclusive manner following the video manipulation.
In a final study, the disadvantaged students who saw the social norms video actually obtained a higher GPA than their marginalized controls who did not.
81
In what ways are internal motivation and external motivation correlated to prejudice?
Internal: Weakly to moderately negatively related to prejudice
External: Weakly positively related to prejudice
Both measures are not correlated with each other.
82
TRUE or FALSE.
There seems to be a small percentage of people who are motivated to express prejudice.
TRUE.
Race: 7%
Sexual orientation: 6.5%
Political Orientation: 14.3%
This is still at UoW.
83
TRUE or FALSE.
People are always able to control their prejudice, they just choose not to.
FALSE.
When the ability to do so is impaired (time of day, age, alcohol, cognitive resources), people are more likely to discriminate.
84
Milgram, what did he study?
Milgram was interested in trying to understand situations like Nazi Germany. How could sane people conduct such heinous acts?
Yale university shock experiment, if confederate answered wrong the participant had to shock them. The more mistakes meant higher voltage each time by 15 volts.
Results: Everyone went up at least to 300 volts. 65% ended up going all the way to 450 volts and everyone who reached 375 volts went all the way.
Follow up studies determined other variables included: Proximity, Social Power and Social Status.
Why did people follow through?
- No exit
- Motivated to follow rules
- Responsibility transferred to experimenter
- Victim Blaming
- Escalating commitment (step by step not all at once)
He is also responsible for the lost letter technique.
85
What is stigma?
Possessing (or believing to possess) a characteristic that conveys a devalued social identity.
Goffman highlights 3 types:
- Physical
- Mental
- Tribal (group based)
86
What are the 5 dimensions that capture meaningful differences between stigmas?
- Visibility (just by looking at you, some choose to conceal but for some not possible)
- Controllability (LGBT, mental illness, weight, ... your perception of it changes your approach)
- Disruptiveness (familiarity decreases disruptiveness)
- Aesthetic qualities (familiarity decreases impact but less attractive = more stigma)
- Peril (those perceived as dangerous are more discriminated against)
87
TRUE or FALSE.
Based on who you associate with, you can be stigmatized.
TRUE.
This is called stigma by association.
Examples of this is
- Being around ugly people has a reverse halo effect.
- White applicant sitting beside black person rated as less qualified.
88
What is attributional ambiguity?
The difficulty that stereotyped groups have in interpreting feedback, as most discrimination is not blatant.
Was this because due to my group membership or me as an individual?
If feedback is due to group membership, it is less hurtful or impactful.
89
Discuss the results of the study on attributional ambiguity in the context of virtual reality (Hoyt et al).
Individuals with Latinx avatars, regardless of actual ethnic identity, were more likely to attribute feedback to discrimination.A similar pattern emerged when it came to positive feedback in a follow up study.
So, attributional ambiguity buffered negative feedback but also reduced the benefits of positive feedback.
90
When is discrimination more likely to happen?
- If it is an outgroup member
- In context linked to negative stereotypes
- When you identify more with your ingroup
- Having stigma consciousness
- When it's blatant
91
How does perceived discrimination lead to worse physical and mental health outcomes?
Through heightened stress response and risky health behaviour (consumption, ...).
Important to note that objective measures of discrimination are not relevant in this case, as the subjective experience is what impacts the individual.
92
TRUE or FALSE.
Racial discrimination is definitely associated with worse mental and physical health, but there is also some evidence for the reverse direction as well.
TRUE.
A depressed person may be more likely to attribute ambiguous negative events to discrimination.
93
In a study concerning racial discriminatio in online dating, what were the findings?
In the mock tinder study, there were only two consistent predictors of a swipe decision.
1) Physical attractiveness rated by other people
2) Whether target belonged to same race as participant
94
What is the personal/group discrimination discrepacy (PGDD)?
The tendency for stigmatized group members to report higher levels of discrimination against their group in general than against themselves personally as members of their group.
95
What are the cognitive mechanisms of PGDD?
1. Identification
It is easier to identify general patterns across many people than to identify specific cases (birds eye view).
2. Accessibility
Group examples are easier to identify, as individual experiences may not fit personal idea of discrimination.
3. Comparison Standard
We compare our group to other groups and ourselves to our group.
96
What are the motivational mechanisms of PGDD?
1. Denial
We want to deny or minimize our own experiences. We want to believe in a just world, it is easier to believe in discrimination abstractly.
2. Distancing
We try to distance ourselves from negative attributes associated with our ingroup. People who claim discrimination are disliked.
3. Affiliation
Claiming discrimination may harm relationships with others.
97
Name the 3 emotional & motivational responses to discrimination and their impact.
1. Concealing (hiding or obscuring your stigma)
Your identity is hidden but this increases preoccupation and vigilance. Can prevent discrimination but has cognitive, emotional and behavioural drawbacks.
2. Compensation
Openly addresses one's stigma reduces ambiguity. People may act in ways to engender more positive attitudes and offer more individuating information to not just be the holder of stigmatized identity.
2. Confrontation
Many factors determine whether we will confront someone. Age, perceptions of malleability, ingroup vs outgroup.
98
What shapes a person's decision to conceal or disclose a stigma?
1. Threat of discovery
2. Self-verification motives
3. Context
4. Degree of disclosure
99
In a study that confronts online hate speech, what were the responses of people who responded with humor, warnings of consequences or empathy?
Empathetic responses led to more deleted tweets and less xenophobic tweets afterwards.
A previous study showed however that those who made aggressive confrontations were more liked by others and seen in a better light.
100
Why don't people directly confront more?
- Norm not to engage
- Social norm to be polite if you do
- Concern about retaliation
- Diffusion of responsibility
101
What are the 5 steps in confrontation model before someone chooses to confront discrimination?
1. Was event discriminatory?
2. Is it an emergency?
(seriousness and blameworthiness of perp.)
3. Does observer take responsibility?
(or diffuse blame to someone else)
4. Does observer identify a response?
(confront without escalation)
5. Does observer take action?
(weight risks, costs, benefits)
102
What makes an effective confrontation?
Focus on behaviour or other's reactions over a person's character.
Ex: That word made me feel uncomfortable instead of YOU'RE RACIST.
Being a member of the non-stigmatized group.
103
TRUE or FALSE.
Children vary a lot when they develop certain capacities but central tendency should be viewed as a rule.
FALSE.
Because there is variability, it should be viewed as a range and not a rule.
104
What is the habituation paradigm (nonverbal recognition)?
It is when young children are exposed to a new stimuli, they will take more time to look at it the newer it is. Once they habituate, the looking time will decrease.
To participate, children need to see, be able to control their eye movements and be capable of remember objects (functioning memory).
105
What is an example of novelty based on the habituation paradigm?
Study with 5-6 month olds where infants were habituated to a photo and then shown a new photo with either:
- Someone similar
- Someone different in gender OR age
Infants would spend the most time looking at the different age or gender (not habituated) and the least time looking at the similar photo.
106
What is an example of preference based on the habituation paradigm?
White newborn infants and 3 month old were shown images of different races with NO habituation.
Newborns showed no race-based difference in looking time but 3 month olds showed more looking time for white faces.
Thus, nonverbal preferences based on race develop with experience (so nothing innate about racial pref.).
107
In terms of conscious awareness of social categories, what are the two rules for when awareness of social categories develop?
1. Visibility of social category
2. Primacy of social category in everyday life
108
At what age does gender and racial awareness develop?
Gender: 2-3 years old
Race/Ethnicity: 5 years and up
Children in the US are usually are capable of identifying black individuals first and then other groups later.
109
Describe the study that demonstrates the differences in how children and adults determine race.
Adults and 4-9 year olds were participants.
Participants needed to label a face as white or black, faces differed in skin colour and facial features (physiognomy).
Both groups relied on skin colour but adults also used physiognomy to determine the race of the person. Children only use skin colour.
110
One study looked at how race is seen as either an immutable or essential feature of a person. Describe the results.
5-6, 9-10 year olds and adults viewed images of white and black kids and adults expressing either a happy or angry expression.
Participants were asked to determine whether a child would grow up to be either a black or white adult, with facial expression varying in both the child and adult pictures.
9-10 year olds and adults viewed race as more important in making their prediction than emotion expressed.
5-6 year olds use race much less compared to white 9-10 year olds, but racial minority 5-6 year olds were ALSO more likely to use race.
SO white 5-6 year olds more likely to use emotions rather than just race as an indicator.
111
TRUE or FALSE.
Children understand after a certain age that we avoid discussing race, even in a situation that might demand it.
TRUE.
Children become aware of cultural norms and hesitancy to discuss race directly.
This is exemplified in the "Guess who" game where younger kids did better than older kids in the race sensitive condition (as opposed to the sticker condition).
112
What are 2 important factors for the development of racial prejudice?
1. Are you a member of a minority group?
2. How much contact do you have with members of minority groups?
Those belonging to minority groups or those in majority group with more opportunity for contact have lower levels of prejudice.
113
What changes are seen in the development of implicit attitudes across development?
Your self-reported preference will decrease as you age (6, 10, adult comparison) but implicitly you remain consistent (pro white attitude).
The changes in explicit attitudes may be due to learning social and cultural norms, as well as internalizing moral lessons about equality. However, implicitly may remain stable due to cultural messages.
114
TRUE or FALSE.
Children who grew up with an other-race nannie showed higher ingroup preference.
FALSE.
It was associated with less ingroup racial preference in explicit attitudes.
However, it was not associated with the amount of ingroup racial preference in implicit attitudes.
115
At what age do children seem to prefer their own gender and when does gender preferences decline?
Preference develop around age 3-4
Preferences decline around puberty due to heterosexual attraction.
116
TRUE or FALSE.
Children pick up on gender stereotypes as young as 6 years old.
TRUE.
Six year old girls were less likely than boys to report that members of their gender are "really, really smart". This leads girls to not pursue activities meant for "smart" people.
117
TRUE or FALSE.
5 year olds are also able to pick up on gender stereotypes and are less likely to see themselves as smart.
FALSE.
5 year olds are more likely to think that their own gender was more likely to be smart. It is at age 6 that both girls and boys thought men were smarter.
This difference carries over into interest in games meant for smart people, with 5 year old girls actually being more interested in activities for "smart people" and we see a reversal at age 6, with boys being more interested.
118
TRUE or FALSE.
When asked to draw a scientist, girls are slowly drawing more girl scientists (decrease in gender bias but not substantial).
TRUE.
However, as girls increase in age, they are more likely to draw a male scientist.
119
What was the storybook intervention and was it effective at reducing racial prejudice in children?
seemed to believe that both white and black readers would have more positive attitudes towards white people.
Second graders believed that people would prefer whichever racial group they would belong to, especially kids high in reconciliation skills.
The storybook intervention had no effect on children's own racial attitude likely due to the fact that children assumed the person reading the book shared their own racial prejudices.
Young children may not possess the "cognitive structure to engage with antibias perspective".
120
