MIDTERM 1.2 Flashcards
1
Q
What are intergroup relations?
A
Identifying self or others to social categories
2
Q
What is prejudice?
A
An attitude, positive or negative, towards a group (affect). Can be overt or hidden, conscious or automatic.
3
Q
What are stereotypes?
A
A belief about a group of people (cognition). This goes beyond positive or negative valence and they are generalizations.
3 key aspects: shared, cultural belief - accuracy - descriptive and prescriptive
4
Q
What is discrimination?
A
Behavior directed towards people on the basis of their group membership.
Can be interpersonal, organizational, institutional or cultural
5
Q
Name the 4 levels, higher to lower level, at which intergroup relations operate.
A
- Systems and institutions
- Groups and organizations
- Interpersonal Interactions *
- Individuals Minds *
- are psych level
6
Q
What is institutional discrimination?
A
When norms and policies associated with the institution result in different outcomes on the basis of a group distinction. The impact can create disparities.
Ex: school funding, crack cocaine vs powder cocaine laws
7
Q
What is organizational discrimination?
A
When norms, policies and practices association with an organization result in different outcomes on the basis of a group distinction.
Ex: Texas school banning dreadlocks
8
Q
What is interpersonal discrimination?
A
When one person treats another person differently on the basis of their group membership.
Ex: The bike theft example with a black or white confederate
9
Q
What is social capital?
A
It is the social assets of a person that promote social mobility.
Ex: White high SES Jared Lacrosse amazon example, economics network example
10
Q
TRUE or FALSE.
Having a child correlates with lower earnings for women.
A
TRUE.
Once a woman has a child, their earnings drop significantly while men’s salaries remain unaffected.
11
Q
What is selective exposure?
A
Tendency to seek information that reinforces one’s attitudes, while avoiding information that contradicts them.
12
Q
Who can be deemed the fist psychologist? He started the first psychology laboratory at Harvard University.
A
William James
13
Q
Who can be deemed the first social psychologist?
A
Kurt Lewin
14
Q
What is phrenology?
A
Popular scientific fad in the 19th c that believed that skull shapes were a reliable predictor of psychological traits. A form of scientific racism.
15
Q
Who wrote one of the first textbooks on social psychology and despite this, what was wrong with this person’s beliefs?
A
William McDougall exemplified scientific racism, believing that nordic races were “superior” to other groups, while ignoring the societal structures making these other groups “submissive”.
16
Q
What was the Johnson-Reed Act of 1924?
A
Immigration quota that favoured northern and western europeans, barring immigrants from Asia. The law drew heavily on eugenics and other forms of scientific racism.
17
Q
What is social darwinism?
A
The belief that existing disparities were justified as they reflected innate differences between more and less worthy groups.
This belief shaped a lot of inhumane laws (ex: forced sterilization).
18
Q
Who coined the terms ingroup, outgroup and ethnocentrism?
A
William Graham Sumner in Folkways (first prof of socio in NA)
19
Q
What were the influences of Folkways by William Graham Summer?
A
Defining ingroups and outgroups.
More specifically, aspects of yourself are attached to the groups you belong to and relations to outgroup are of war and plunder.
20
Q
Who first used the word stereotype to describe the social phenomenon and not a term used in the printing press?
A
Walter Lippmann in Public Opinion
We generate stereotypes to make the world easier to process (observations and suggestions from others/cultures).
21
Q
What did the Princeton trilogy studies reveal?
A
Many highlighted how they believed Germans were likely to be scientific minded. The explanation is likely confirmation bias and fulfilling prophecy, we seek the traits we expect to see.
22
Q
Who conducted the 1st social study on discrimination and what was it?
A
Lapiere, he disliked self-report scales and wanted to know for real how people would act in situations.
He traveled for 2 years with a Chinese immigrant couple, only being refused service once, even though 92% said they would refuse service to a Chinese coupe.
23
Q
Who is considered the father of inter-group relations?
A
Gordon Allport
24
Q
What is Gordon Allport’s book Nature of Prejudice credited for?
A
1) Taking a social cognitive perspective of prejudice
2) Arguing for the importance of studying intergroup contact
Acknowledges how natural it is to make generalizations but that they can be useful or harmful depending on the context (restaurant vs racial stereotype).
25
According to Allport's contact hypothesis, what are the 5 types of contact intergroups can have that reduce hostility and prejudice?
1. Quantity
2. Status
3. Goals
4. Social
5. Physical
Not all types of contacts are effective.
26
What are some of the results of the first studies on intergroup contact?
1. Singer --> White military officers have more favourable attitudes after serving in the same unit as black soldiers.
2. Stouffer --> Only white soldiers that fought alongside black soldiers in WW2 showed more favourable attitudes towards black people.
3. Deutsch & Collins --> Those in integrated housing had more positive attitudes towards black people, leading to reversal of some segregated housing policies.
27
Who conducted and what was the Robbers Cave Experiment?
Sherif
The 3 week summer camp experiment with the Eagles and Rattlers, which demonstrated based on structure of environment that conflict arises due to competition (realistic conflict theory).
28
What were the 3 stages of the robbers cave experiment?
1. Experimental Ingroup Formation
2. Friction Between Groups (clear winner and loser for 1 week was enough to create hostility)
3. Integration between group
29
What were the contributions of Tajfel (Human Groups & Social Categories) to inter group relations?
Founder of social identity theory, which states that self-esteem was primarily determined by their group membership.
He also advanced research on minimal group paradigms, which state that belonging to a group by mere arbitrary classification is enough to create intergroup bias.
30
What is System Justification?
It is how even though a system may disadvantage us, we still maintain it even if it unequal. The idea of lacking structure is scary and threatening. Thus, even marginalized groups internalize a sense of inferiority to maintain said structure.
Fanon, Jost, Banaji
31
What was the doll test?
Clark & Clark asked black children to choose between a white and black doll, children preferred the white doll. Even at a young age, children could identify out group favouritism and internalized the messages of the social structure.
This helped the case of Brown vs Board of education, which challenged the segregation of schools, if children were equal why were they separate?
32
What is implicit social cognition?
It investigates the role of automatic and unconscious processes in social psychological processes.
Ex: Evaluative priming (white or black face with postive or negative word) indirect measure to infer racial attitudes.
33
TRUE or FALSE.
Implicit racial attitudes are 100% related to our beliefs.
FALSE.
Our behaviour is not 100% correlated to our beliefs.
EX: EP, 15% pro black, 30% equal and 55% pro white
34
TRUE or FALSE.
In the audit study, when 2 black confederates were speaking on the sidewalk, people walked 4 inches further away.
TRUE.
More so for women than men.
35
What is social identity theory?
Our self-concept is derived from our group memberships.
We want to achieve and maintain a positive social identity and distinguish or own social group from others.
36
What did Tajfel's minimal groups study demonstrate?
Based on being placed in the Klee or Kandinsky group, individuals were more likely to distribute money to those who belonged to the same group as them, despite having no real reason to.
37
TRUE or FALSE.
Our self-categorization is stable and unchanging.
FALSE.
Self-categorization tends to be situational, we align with the identities that allow us to feel good and differentiate ourselves.
However, threats to the ingroup make identity more salient (ex: 9/11)
38
What is optimal distinctiveness theory by Brewer?
People want to strike a balance between their group and personal identities. We strive to feel unique but still part of a group.
(Be a pepper commercial)
39
What is too disctinct, not distinct enoug hand optimally distinctive in terms of optimal distinctiveness theory?
Not enough: Lack individuality and too constraining
Too much: Stigma, not included, undesirable deviant
Perfect: Distinct but not too much
40
What is Self-Esteem Hypothesis?
Our self-esteem is intrinsically linked to group identity. When our group succeeds, we see it as our own success (wearing college apparel after football victory) but when our group fails we do not want to associate ("they" blew our chances!).
We can also increase our S-E by derogating other groups to uplift ours.
41
According to the S-E Hypothesis, who is more likely to discriminate against outgroups?
Those with lowered self-esteem. So either people who are facing threats to their self-esteem or people with chronically lower SE.
42
What is relative deprivation theory?
The belief that one is getting less than they deserve relative to other people or groups and some other standard (past, expectations). Relative deprivation arises when we belief the discrepancy is underserved.
We use others who are similar, relevant and proximal to us as a comparative measure.
Ex: Monkeys with cucumber or grapes
43
In relation to relative deprivation theory, what makes people believe a discrepancy is undeserved?
1. Lack of distributive justice (rewards and costs)
2. Lack of procedural justice (procedures to receive rewards and costs, ex a meritocracy)
44
TRUE or FALSE.
Personal deprivation is relevant for prejudice.
FALSE.
Group deprivation is relevant for prejudice.
Ex: Immigrants are stealing jobs from AMERICANS, not you personally (even though they don't actually).
45
TRUE or FALSE.
If equality-enhancing policies uplift minority groups while lightly affecting the advantaged group, then people see it as being just.
FALSE.
In the mortgage example for Latino homebuyers, enhancing equality was rated as more harmful to white participants.
46
TRUE or FALSE
When given the option to uplift both the ingroup and outgroup, people will choose to do this instead of further increasing inequality.
FALSE.
People prefer to increase intergroup inequality, even if it means less rewards for their own group, if it means the outgroup will have less rewards and stay at a disadvantage.
46
What is realistic conflict theory?
Intergroup prejudice & discrimination arises from conflicting goals & competition over limited resources.
46
In realistic conflict theory, when is intergroup prejudice amplified?
1. When the relationship between groups is perceived as zero-sum
2. When there is objective resource scarcity
3. When there is perceived resource scarcity
47
According to each theory, where does prejudice arise from?
Social identity theory:
Relative Deprivation:
Realistic Conflict:
Social identity theory: From mere ingroup/outgroup
Relative Deprivation: From victimized ingroup
Realistic Conflict: From competition
48
What can be said about perceptions of group hierarchies according to race today?
That while hierarchies are implicit, everyone seems to have an idea of people's status that is mostly consistent.
White --> Asian --> Latino --> Black
49
What can be said about human's orientation towards social domiance?
That social identity theory is not the only contributor to discrimination and that group-based hierarchies are universal (and unavoidable). Most intergroup conflict arises from the existence of these hierarchies, with one group oppressing the other (classism, racism, sexism).
People can be hierarchy-enforcing or hierarchy-attenuating.
50
What is the SDO scale?
The social dominance orientation scale measures variations of individual differences of how much someone believes society should have group-based hierarchies.
The SDO scale is rightly skewed and correlated to political ideology, gender and racial preferences. However, not fully correlated so it seems to tap into something separate as well.
51
What seems to be associated with white police officers using force while on patrol?
Higher SDO
SDO also seemed to be associated with working in a hierarchy-enforcing job, working such jobs also associated with longterm increases in SDO.
52
Does prejudice precede SDO or does SDO precede prejudice?
It seems that SDO drives prejudice more than the other way around.
53
What is Schadenfreude?
Feeling positive after someone else experiences negativity.
53
How does SDO facilitate the maintenance of intergroup hierarchies?
AS SDO increased, members who saw outgroup members experience something negative seemed to get more pleasure out of it. This is especially true for racial outgroup members.
SDO seems to blunt or mute empathy towards outgroup members, making it easier to keep them in positions of lower social status.
53
What are the psychological effects of scarcity (lower power and status)?
It is like being under consistent cognitive load, reducing people's ability to pay attention to other concerns in one's life. Attention on surviving the present, neglect on long-term costs. Scarcity creates a different mindset.
54
In an attempt to create scarcity in a laboratory setting, researchers either made people rich (20 guesses) or poor (6 guesses) in a wheel of fortune game. What were the found effects?
They used a dot probe test to measure cognitive control afterwards. "Poor" contestants did worse on the dot-probe task.
However, this may be an oversimplification of scarcity.
54
What is an example of the effects of scarcity in the real world?
Sugarcane farmers are paid once annually, so post harvest they are rich and poor pre harvest.
The same farmers perform 10 points higher in IQ test post harvest.
Also, increase of 1000$ in income raises reading and math skills in children. Largest effect seen in disadvantaged family.
54
Who came up with the Likert scale?
Rensis Likert
55
What is symbolic or modern racism?
Blatant racism is not tolerated anymore. However, people high in symbolic or modern racism believe that discrimination is no longer a significant problem. They believe that disparities are due to group differences in attitude or motivation.
56
How can symbolic or modern racism be measured?
Using self-report measures
57
Which approach works best to measure individual differences in racial attitudes?
By maximizing correlation between self-report and IAT, we get closest to the construct we are trying to measure. Blunt measures seem to correlate the most to IAT.
58
What is right wing authoritarianism and what does it predict?
It is a measure developed to identify people who are particularly willing to submit to authorities and who strongly adhere to societal conventions.
It predicts intergroup prejudice and correlates strongly with political orientation.
59
TRUE or FALSE.
Liberals have a strong need for closure.
FALSE.
Conservatives tend to have a stronger need for closure. They tend to want to avoid feelings of ambiguity, which may relate to the use of stereotypes and a simplified worldview.
60
What were the findings of the perception of androgyny study?
That categorization time mediated the relationship between liking of each target and target androgyny for conservatives.
The same pattern did not emerge for liberals.
61
TRUE or FALSE.
Liberals believe we can easily identify which social groups an individual belongs to based on appearance.
FALSE.
Conservatives were more confident that social group membership could be inferred from physical appearance. This may due to the fact that it helps provide structure in their lives.
62
Name the different forms of racism from most explicit to most implicit.
1. Old-fashioned prejudice
2. Symbolic prejudice
3. Aversive prejudice
4. Ambivalent prejudice
5. Implicit Prejudice
63
What are the characteristics of old fashioned racism?
1. Whites believe they are biologically superior
2. A firm belief in racial separation
3. Use of government to establish segregation and discrimination.
Less common today, but some are still this kind of racist.
64
Which type of prejudice does not qualify as a system of attitudes and beliefs?
Implicit Prejudice
64
What do contemporary theories of prejudice state?
Most people want to be perceived as non-prejudiced, so they will express their prejudices in ways that can be justified on seemingly unprejudiced grounds.
Ex: Welfare queen
65
What is symbolic prejudice and what does it state about other groups?
1. Moves away from biological superiority
2. Focuses on outgroup violation of share cultural values
3. Justification of inequality and unfair treatment due to negative internal characteristics of outgroup
66
Name the 5 themes of symbolic prejudice.
1. Discrimination no longer exists
2. Differences in economic status are from lack of motivation
3. Anger over inequality is unjustified
4. Black people seek special favours instead of working to get ahead
5. Black people are getting more than they deserve economically
67
What is the paradox of symbolic prejudice?
People with symbolic prejudice endorse policies that promote inequality, while generally endorsing equality as an abstract principle.
68
How is the paradox of symbolic prejudice resolved?
There are two meaning of equality.
1. Equal opportunity, which higher modern racists seem to agree with this type of equality.
2. Equal outcome, everyone having an equal share of successes. Higher modern racists agree less with this type.
69
What is aversive racism?
Having positive explicit attitudes towards black people while holding negative implicit attitudes towards black people. Feelings of unease and discomfort rather than hostility. Strong desire to appear unprejudiced.
Ex: Partner discomfort study
70
Under what conditions do aversive racists discriminate?
When it is unclear what the clear and fair response is in an ambiguous situation, people with have discriminatory responses ("gut response").
71
What is ambivalent prejudice?
It is when an individuals has both negative and positive feelings about a group.
Ex: Seeing black people as disadvantaged elicits a positive response but seeing them as culturally deviant elicits a negative one. The conflict causes discomfort. To resolve conflict, increase positivity or negativity.
72
TRUE or FALSE.
Ambivalent prejudice causes more extreme behaviour towards a stigmatized group.
TRUE.
To reduce conflict, ambivalent people swing more extremely to one side or the other. Higher physiological reaction can also can people to react more positively to reduce conflict.
73
Give a quick summary of these forms of prejudice:
1. Old fashioned
2. Modern-Symbolic
3. Aversive
4. Ambivalent
1. Hate minorities, they are biologically inferior, discrimination is justified.
2. I hate minorities, they are morally inferior, discrimination doesn't exist anymore.
3. I don't like discrimination but don't like minorities, they make me anxious.
4. I don't like discrimination, I have positive and negative feelings about minorities.
74
What is the implicit association test?
IAT measures implicit attitudes using congruent and incongruent blocks. Easier pairs suggest stronger associations.
75
TRUE or FALSE.
An IAT score can be used as a diagnostic to predict an individual's future behaviour.
FALSE.
It fluctuates over time and is a noisy measure of mental content.
HOWEVER, meta analysis suggests small but consistent ability to predict real-world beh.
76
Where do implicit prejudices and stereotypes come from?
- Our understanding of social hierarchy
- Our social identity
77
TRUE or FALSE.
White participants with her implicit racial bias tend to have more awkward and stilted conversations with Black people.
TRUE.
78
In regards to the implicit bias and employment study, what were the findings in Sweden in terms of swedish vs arab sounding applicants?
1. Weak correlation betwwen explicit stereotypes and callbacks.
2. Negative correlation between implicit stereotypes and callback rate for Arab applicants
79
TRUE or FALSE.
In regions of the US where implicit bias is higher, black individuals get lower suspension rates than white students because people try to appear unbiased.
FALSE.
Higher implicit bias is association with higher suspension rates.
80
When are implicit prejudices influential?
1. When you don't think things through (cog. load)
2. When criteria for decisions is unclear
3. When information is ambiguous (police man vs woman example)
4. When policies and systems allow it (ex symphonies).
81
TRUE or FALSE.
In terms of cross-race interactions, individuals who reported more implicit bias on IAT had the most difficulty on the Stroop task following this type of interaction.
TRUE.
82
What is motivation to control prejudiced response?
It is something we can measure that seems to be a strong predictor of the quality of intergroup interactions.
There is both internal and external motivation, with very little correlation between the two, as they are driven by separate motives.
83
What is the contact hypothesis?
It is the idea that interpersonal contact between groups improves intergroup relations.
84
What are the optimal conditions for intergroup contact?
1. Support from authorities
2. Equal Status (important, as if unequal use other to scapegoat if things go wrong)
3. Common Goals
4. Cooperation
5. Contact as individuals (informal setting)
85
Why do people hesitate to initiate intergroup contact?
1. Worry they do not know how to act
2. Anticipate anxiety
3. Expect a more negative experience than reality suggests
4. Worry about rejection and assume the other is not interested
86
What are indirect forms of contact and do they reduce prejudice?
1. Extended Contact (yes)
2. Imagining Contact (short term effect)
3. Parasocial Contact (yes)
87
What is more influential, positive or negative experiences with outgroup members?
While negative is less common, it seems to be more influential. You tend to generalize to the outgroup
88
TRUE or FALSE.
There are downsides to intergroup contact. While advantaged groups may see increases in their support for social change following interactions with the disadvantaged group, the opposite is seen for the disadvantaged group.
TRUE.
There seems to be a pacifying effect on working for social change.
89
TRUE or FALSE.
There seems to be lasting effects on racial attitudes in Europe, depending on troop deployment in WW2 England.
TRUE.
There may be an intergenerational transmission effect that plays a role.
90
In the interview with Brown, what was the general idea?
Brown studied how groups tended to care more about their relative standing, rather than their absolute standing (prefer that both groups lose to maintain their group standing).
91
In the interview with Sa-Kiera Hudson, what was the main idea?
She talks about hierarchies and how people are willing to subscribe to them (SDO) if they feel like the positions are deserved.
Also, people are not motivated to feel empathy towards those who are outgroup and lower status.
92
In the interview with Stern, what is the main idea?
The differences in ideology between left and right wing individuals and how right wing individuals are more likely to use stereotypes and infer group membership based on physical traits (motivation for structure).
93
In the interview with Ratliff, what was the main idea?
Mainly discussed the IAT and how it is not a magical unconscious marker but it is still difficult to control our biases. Some people struggle to not be defensive.
94
What was the main idea of Schindler's interview?
How in WW2 attitudes towards black soldiers may have helped shaped current attitudes today. Seemingly, intergenerational transmission in attitudes.
95
What were the main findings of Dietrich's interview?
People walked further away from black individuals on the street (4 inches on average).
They are also doing this in virtual reality now, which allows for more internal validity (easier to control many variables).
