Midterm 2 Flashcards
What is top-down processing?
to start by identifying the way the system solves problems, and the type of representations used.
What is bottom-up processing?
To start at the neural (implementation level) and work your way up to the overall organization of cognition and behaviour
How do you perceive representations?
Have representations inside the mind that stand for things “out there” (in the world)
What do symbols in our mind represent?
Symbols in our mind represent the world, we act on these symbols and move accordingly to them to interact with the world
What is a Semantic Network?
Symbols with coonnections, links, and relations that build our understanding of the world.
What is the Ebbinghaus forgetting Curve?
The Forgetting curve involves the decline of memory over time , it shows how information is lost when there is no attempt to recall it
How does information flow through neurons?
Information is collected through the dendrite and passed down by axon where that info will then be passed onto dendrites of another neuron
How does Neural Network Perception work?
Pixels activate the input layer, output layer identifies the input
How does reward learning work in humans?
It is a process rooted in rooted in our brains reward system. Involves release of NTs such as dopamine when we do something pleasurable or rewarding. Through trial and error, human learn to associate specific actions or choices with these rewarding outcomes
How does reward learning work in Artificial Intelligence?
In AI it is a critical component of reinforcement learning. Reinforcement algorithms use reward signals to update agent’s policy, encouraging it to repeat actions that lead to positive outcomes and avoid negative ones.
What is reverse engineering?
Taking apart an object to see how it works in order to duplicate or to enhance it
What did Newell challenge researchers to do?
To integrate all the fragmented data by building unifying theories
What is Dustbowl empiricism?
An approach to science that consists of making empirical observations and collecting data rather than establishing a theoretical framework
What is Parsimony?
The Parsimony principle tells us to choose the simplest scientific explanation that fits the evidence. Cognitive science is parsimonious because cognitive representations are the first cause of human behaviour
What is the Lakatosian Scientific Framework?
It integrates data under unifying explanations.
What is the Unified Theory of Cognition?
a single set of mechanisms that account for all of cognition including perception and motor control
How do symbols engage with cognition?
Knowledge moves into working memory and directs procedural knowledge
How do sub-symbolic processes work?
Connectionism
What is Meta-knowledge?
A representation that is self-representing or refers to a cognitive property. Meta-knowledge refers to knowledge about knowledge itself
What is Self-Representation?
How a shape or a symbol can represent its own attributes.
What must UTC explain?
- How intelligent organisms respond flexibly to the environment
- How we exhibit goal directed behaviour and choose goals rationally
- How we learn symbols and connectionist information
- How we learn from experience
- How the mind exists as a single system with no supervisor
What are the 2 basic assumptions of UTC and Cognition?
- The mind is too complicated to be understood using the resources of any one discipline (needs to be interdisciplinary)
- The mind needs to be undersrtood at many different levels (need for an integrated multilevel explanation)
What would a complete cognitive architecture do?
it would faithfully depict all human cognitive processes. it seeks to depict all the invisible rooms of the mind
What are the steps in Newell’s level of information processing?
Implementational, Computational, Knowledge
What are the steps in Marr’s level of information processing?
Implementational, Algorithmic,
Computational
What does Marr’s level of analysis provide?
Provides a framework for understanding computational processes in information processing systems in the brain
What are the 2 models of information-processing?
- The physical symbol hypothesis
(e.g. Turing machine) - Connectionism/artificial neural networks
What is mental architecture?
A model of how the mind is organized and how it works to process information
What was the first meta-theory in cognitive science?
The information processing theory: it was an all-encompassing theory designed to explain cognition. it can use process models to understand cognition
What is a process model?
Depicts how a system operates over time. For cognition, it is a.hypothesis about the mental processes that occur when a task is performed.
What is the goal of AI?
Scientific understanding of the mechanisms underlying thought and intelligent behaviour and their embodiment in machines
What is the Goal of Cogsci?
Understanding the nature of the human mind as demonstrated by models that match and predict human behaviour
What is the goal of a cognitive model?
The goal of a cognitive model is to depict one or more cognitive processes and how they interact to solve tasks. Processes such as perceiving, remembering, learning, predicting, etc.
What is a model?
A representation of something that may be used in place of the real thing, abstracting unimportant features but retaining the essential. A good model is complete and faithful,.
What is a cognitive model?
It is a process model. It depicts how a psychological process function over time. Represents cognitive processes as computer code that can be tested empirically.
What is the underlying idea of cybernetics?
Build mechanical models to simulate the behaviour of natural systems
What are some uses for cognitive models?
- Researchers use cognitive models of decision making to predict preferences for consumer products.
- AI and robotic researchers use cognitive models for automated recognition and detection
What is the simple memory model?
This model asserts that human memory has 3 components:
-Sensory register
-Short term store
-Long term store
What does the architecture do?
It depicts the general operations, a single set of mechanisms for all processes
How do cognitive modelling connect to the history of science?
it connects by building theories of empirical phenomena that are tested and based on data
What is a symbolic model?
This model uses symbolic representations to simulate cognitive processes (problem solving and logical reasoning)
What is a connectionist model?
This model employs artificial neural networks to replicate how information is processes in a distributed, interconnected manner. Used for pattern recognition and learning.
What is a Computational Neuroscience model?
This models bridges cognitive science and neuroscience by simulating behaviour of neural circuits to understand how they underlie cognitive functions like perception and memory
What is a Production System Model?
This model represents cognition as a set of IF-THEN production rules, demonstrating how humans execute tasks and make decision based on rule-based systems
What does SOAR stand for and what does it do?
SOAR= State Operator and Result. SOAR is a general cognitive architecture that develops models that exhibit intelligent behaviour. It depicts the modularity of cognitive functions such as: working memory, procedural knowledge, declarative knowledge, etc.
What does ACT-R stand for and what does it do?
ACT-R= Adaptive Control of Thought - Rational.
ACT-R is a hybrid cognitive architecture based on both symbolic and sub-symbolic processes.
Procedural Knowledge is implemented by production rules
Neural correspondence?
In ACT-R, modules are correlated with their associated brain regions
What is ACT-R’s Architecture Overview?
- Production system as its base (procedural memory)
- Buffers (Working memory, temporary storage containers)
- Modules (vision, memory, motor)
- 2 types of knowledge:
Declarative Knowledge: facts, knowledge chunks
Procedural Knowledge: production rules
How does procedural knowledge work?
It is a basic process of “Match -> fire”. It works with “if - then” statements or “condition - action” statements.
“If” checks buffer content (matches to the content of working memory)
“Then” fires to change the state in a buffer or request from a module
What is Machine Theory of Mind?
It is a cognitive architecture that could help robots understand how humans think to engage with us effectively.
How could a MToM help us?
MToM could support effective human-machine teaming. Machines will need MToM to make inferences and predictions about human cognitive states to predict future states and that are consistent with out beliefs, goals and intentions
What is a Theory of Mind?
Relates to the processes an agent uses to represent the mental states of itself and others
Which aspects of cognition should we aim to capture?
- External behaviour
- Internal states and processes
How can we evaluate models against human behaviour?
-Time course
-Ultimate success or failure
-Relative task difficulty
What are some alternatives to cognitive models?
- Classic Information Processing Psychology: Ignore the brain
- Eliminative Connectionism: Ignore the mind and internal representations
- Mathematical Approach: ignore the architecture
What are some modern successful AI systems?
IBM Watson (symbolic)
AlphaGO (deep mind, connectionist)
What is a Anaphora resolution?
It is a cognitive process used to connect pronouns or other referring expressions in a sentence to their antecedents, helping establish the coherence and meaning of text
What is Compositionality?
Compositionality states that the meaning of a complex expression is determined by the meaning of its constituent parts and the way they are combined
What is intelligence?
Many equate intelligence as when an agent uses its available knowledge to select the best actions to achieve its goals
What is the Problem Space Hypothesis?
It is a theory that individuals approach problems by generating and exploring potential solutions through a sequence of mental operations, moving from initial problem state to desire goal state. SOAR is based off this hypothesis
What is a problem space?
it is a set of all possible problem states between where you are and the goal
What is a state?
A representation of the problem in some “degree” of solution
What is Metacognition?
higher process that involves awareness or control of our own mind, includes control of focus, emotion, and memory
What are the 2 parts of Metacognition?
Monitoring and Control
What is Metacognitive Monitoring and what can you monitor?
Monitoring is the awareness of mental states such as thoughts and emotions.
You can monitor the external environment and internal mental states
What is Metacognitive Control and what can you control?
Control is the deliberate regulation of cognitive states and processes.
You can control both your external environment and internal thoughts
Who coined the term metacogniton?
John Flavell
What can Metacognitive instruction and training do?
It can improve cognitive functioning. It improves cognitive and motor skills.
Where did the greater abilities of cognition come from?
The mind learning to understand and direct its own thinking.
What is the method of loci?
It holds effective instructions for improving ones memory. One should form localities and then form mental images of what they want to store in memory, then place these images in the localities.
What is the difference between meta-knowledge and object knowledge?
Meta-knowledge allows cognition to direct itself while object-knowledge allows cognition to direct external things
What is Cognitive Behaviour Therapy?
CBT is a form of psychotherapy. It is a process of coaching, teaching, and reinforcing positive behaviours. Helps clients identify, understand, and modify their own thinking.
What is Metacognitive Therapy?
It involves the development of beneficial metacognitive beliefs, shown to be more effective than CBT
What is Detached Mindfulness
Promoted by MCT, Detached Mindfulness is the awareness of internal events without trying to control or suppress them
What is Metacognition effective at?
It is effective at decreasing addictive behaviours
What is meta-representation?
Also known as meta-knowledge, it is a representation that refers to to cognitive property
What is animal metacognition?
Animal metacognition is based off of some mental awareness of their own mental states. Correlates to System 1 metacognition
What is system 1 of metacognition?
affect-driven, automatic, quick, not requiring working memory
What is system 2 of metacognition?
rule based, slow, effortful, relying on working memory
What do epistemic (noetic) feelings do?
They drive memory search as an individual will take more time to search memory if they feel know it
What is the cognition crisis?
It is a problem of ancient brains in a high-tech world. Our brains were developed for a very different environment and are trying to keep up in a sea of information and artificial stimulation. Contributed to a surge in anxiety, depression, addiction and other cognitive issues
What can modern technology do in the brain?
It can hijack or learning pathways in the human brain. Because of this we are increasingly captive to compulsive behaviour, attention issues, and emotional problems
What is addiction largely caused by?
run away reward-learning
What are meta-emotions?
Emotions that occur in response to other emotions
What can meditation do?
It can increase executive control by strengthening connections in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, reducing anxiety, stress, and depressive symptoms
What is metacognitive sensitivity?
The extent of which one is able to perceive their own mental states
What is high metacognitive sensitivity?
High metacognitive sensitivity prevents procedural knowledge from matching and firing meta-emotions
What is low metacognitive sensitivity?
Low metacognitive sensitivity can result in the misconception of emotional permanence.
What does the misconception of permanence lead to?
Procedural knowiedge matching and firing meta-emotions
What does the concept of impermanence lead to?
The preventing of procedural knowledge matching and firing meta-emotions
What is metacognitive skill?
It refers to the extent of which one is able to monitor and control their own cognitive processes
What is skill learning?
a progression from slow and deliberate rule following to a procedural stage where aspects of performance become more automatic, faster, and accurate
What are the 3 stages of skill learning?
- Declarative Knowledge: As task is acted out it begins to trigger procedural knowledge that carries out performance
- Procedural Knowledge: Builds up as declarative knowledge is repeatedly practiced. With practice performance goes up and errors go down
- Actions rely on procedural knoweldge: actions become increasingly automatic, fast, and accurate. These actions can. be increasingly refined
What is proceduralization?
The process of converting slow declarative knowledge to fast procedural knowledge
What increases metacognitive sensitivity?
Metacognitive training increases metacognitive sensitivity by creating faster productions
What is the metacognitive threshold?
It is the minimal level of stimulus for someone to be aware of some mental state
What does reducing your metacognitive threshold do?
It allows you to perceive with greater clarity the contents of your mind
How can your metacognitive threshold be reduced?
Through meditation
What is attentional training technique and what does it do?
It is a psychotherapeutic treatment that was developed as a method of metacognitive therapy. It can reduce dysfunctional patterns of thinking and allow people to break free of negative pattern of thinking
How can you fulfill your brains function?
By deliberately gaining the information that enables your welfare
To find happiness…?
Humans cannot rely on their recieved culture
What is happiness referred to as in scientific literature?
Hedonia
What is Hedonia?
The presence of positive emotions and the absence of negative emotions
What are the things that contribute to your well being?
-Diet
-Exercise
-Socializing
-Lifestyle
-Light
-Vitamins
What determines happiness?
- a set point
- genetically determined range
- happiness is heritable
What does the eastern conception of human flourishing revolve around?
It revolves around the community and society, encourages studies of literature, science, and arts that serve traditional values
What does the western conception of human flourishing revolve around?
It revolves around the individual and that human flourishing is an end itself. Aims for eudaimonia as the ultimate good
What are the common cross-cultural determinants for human flourishing?
-Happiness and life satisfaction
-Mental and Physical health
-Meaning and Purpose
-Character and Virtue
-Close social relationships
What does flourishing require?
being in supportive environments where you potential is encouraged
What is positive psychology?
The science of happiness, what makes people happy, and how people flourish
What are the 3 dimensions of happiness?
-The pleasant life
-the good life
-the meaningful life
What is the pleasant life?
The pleasant life is achieved by meeting basic human needs:
-Companionship
-needs of our bodies
-and safe environment
What is the good life?
The good life is unlocked by recognizing your strengths and virtues and by pursuing activities that use those to their full potential
What is the meaningful life?
Humans want a purpose and meaning in life. A life in which we find a deep sense of fulfillment by employing our strengths for a greater purpose than ourselves
What is Hedonism?
belief that pleasure or absence of pain is the most important principle in determining morality of a potential course of action
What is Eudaimonia?
It translates to a state or condition of good spirit, commonly translated into happiness or welfare. In works of Aristotle, Eudaimonia was the term of highest human good. Flourishing is the highest human good. It is the success as a human being
What is virtue theory concerned with?
It is concerned with identifying and cultivating character traits that enable individuals to flourish as members of a community
What is virtue?
A character trait acquired by practice that disposes a person to adopt the right course of action in morally charged situations
What are the virtuous character types?
-Heroic: extraordinary goodness
-Virtuous: takes pleasure doing good
-Disciplined: must control bodily desires in order to do good
What is the principle of futile pleasure seeking?
Automatic desire for pleasure can never be permanently satisfied. permanent happiness through superficial pleasure cannot be attained because of its impermanence
What is Vipassana?
Buddhist meditation technique. It means insight to the nature of reality. practices focusing on moment-to-moment changes in mood, thought, and self.
What is the principle of rationality?
A system will use its knowledge to achieve its goals
What is a physical symbol system?
it is a system that contains a memory for storing symbolic structure and is able to perform operations on these symbolic structures, to produce other symbolic structures (operations), or execute some kind of action (interpretations)
What are symbolic structures?
formal structures that describes what the agent knows about the external world, they are representations of that knowledge
