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general biology 1 > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the primary function of a nucleus?

A

-houses DNA in eukaryotic cells
-protects genetic information
-location of transcription & DNA replication

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2
Q

What is a nucleolus?

A

-a structure where ribosomes are made
-inside the nucleus

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3
Q

What is the primary function of a ribosome?

A

-read RNA & synthesize proteins
-can wander freely or attach to rough ER
-

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4
Q

What is the cytoplasm?

A

-jelly-like substances
-organelles float around in it
-provides shape to the cell

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5
Q

What does the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) do?

A

membrane enclosed passageway for transporting materials like proteins

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6
Q

What is the difference between the rough ER & smooth ER?

A

-the rough ER has ribosomes and the smooth ER doesn’t
-the rough ER synthesizes proteins that will be shipped to another organelle
-the smooth ER synthesizes lipids needed by the organism

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7
Q

What is a vesicle?

A

-proteins & other materials emerge from the ER in vesicles
-goes into the golgi apparatus

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8
Q

What is the primary function of the golgi apparatus?

A

-processes, sorts & ships proteins synthesized in the rough ER
-customizes proteins

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9
Q

What is the vacuole?

A

-sac-like structures that stores different materials

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10
Q

What does the vacuole look like in plant cells vs animal cells?

A

-plant cells have a central vacuole which stores water
-animal cells have many small vacuoles

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11
Q

What is the lysosome?

A

-recycling centers found only in animal cells
-take in damaged or worn out cell parts
-filled with enzymes that break down this cellular debris
-break down proteins

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12
Q

What is the peroxisome?

A

-detoxify substances that are potentially harmful to the cell
-work with the lysosome
-they break down fatty acids & protect the cell from reactive oxygen species (ROS)
-ROS’s can destroy the cell

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13
Q

What does the mitochondria do?

A

-site of cellular respiration
-makes ATP = provide energy
-makes ribosomes

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14
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A

-gives cells shape & structural support
-aids cell movement
-transport materials within the cell

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15
Q

What does chloroplasts do?

A

-found only in plant cells
-site where photosynthesis happens

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16
Q

What is the cell wall?

A

-found only in plant cells
-provides shape, support & protects the plant cell

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17
Q

What are the functions of enzymes?

A

-catalysts that bring substrates together in a precise way that makes the reaction more likely
-bring substrates together & lower activation energy
-has an active site which fits with a specific substrate
-pH & temperature has an effect on the enzymes efficiency

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18
Q

What are the differences between potential & kinetic energy?

A

-potential energy is the energy associated with position
-kinetic energy is the energy of movement
- C-H bonds has a lot of potential energy

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19
Q

What is enthalphy?

A

-the total energy in a molecule
-the change in enthalpy is called delta H

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20
Q

What is entropy?

A

-designate with the letter S
-the amount of disorder in a system
-if a chemical reaction becomes less ordered (more entropy), then delta S is positive

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21
Q

What is exothermic vs endothermic?

A

-exothermic reactions occur when products have less potential energy than the reactants & delta H is negative
-endothermic reactions occur when products have more potential energy than the reactants & delta H is postive

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22
Q

What are the two laws of thermodynamics?

A

-the 1st one is that energy is not created nor destroyed but only transferred & transformed; therefore energy is conserved
-the 2nd is that total entropy always increases in an isolated system (things break down over time)

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23
Q

What is Gibbs free energy?

A

-the amount of energy in a reaction avaliable to do work
-if delta G is less than 0, then it is going to be an exergonic reaction that will release energy
-if delta G is greater than 0, then it is going to be an endergonic reaction that will require energy
-increases in temperature & concentration (entropy) lead to negative delta G or more chance of spontaneous reaction to occur

24
Q

What is energetic coupling?

A

-driving endergonic reactions (requires energy) with exergonic reactions (release energy)
-taking energy from one reaction to drive the endergonic reaction

25
Q

What are ReDox reactions?

A

-involves the transfer of electrons = forms ionic bonds
-transfer of energy
-reducing agent= loses electrons -> oxidized
- oxidizing agent= gains electrons -> reduced
-OIL RIG= oxidation is loss of electrons; reduction is gain of electrons

26
Q

What are cofactors, coenzymes, prosthetic groups?

A

-cofactors= inorganic ions like zinc or iron which bind to the enzyme (can come on & off)
-coenzymes= proteins or organic molecules that can bind to the enzyme (can come on & off)
-prosthetic groups= non-amino acid atoms or molecules that can permanently attach to proteins
-these help the enzymes function better
-important for creating a more effective enzyme

27
Q

What is the difference between catabolism & anabolism?

A

-catabolic= pathways that breakdown molecules
-anabolic= pathways that build molecules

28
Q

What are the steps of cellular respiration?

A
  1. glycolysis
  2. pyruvate processing
  3. citric acid cycle
  4. electron transport & oxidative phosphorylation
29
Q

Describe glycolysis

A

-evolutionary conserve pathways for all organsims
-all 10 reactions occur in the cytosol
-occurs in the cytoplasm
-enzymes break down glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate
-2 ATP molecules produced
-capture energy of the bonds into NADH which is released to be used later
-enzymes catalyze the production of ATP = substrate-level phosphorylation

30
Q

Describe pyruvate processing

A

-occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria
-transported from cytoplasm to mitochondria
-one glucose molecules turns to two pyruvates
-captures some of the bonds as NADH
-pyruvate turns into Acetyl CoA
-releases CO2 as a byproduct
-for every 1 glucose you get 2 pyruvates & for every pyruvate you get one Acetyl CoA

31
Q

Describe the citric acid cycle

A

-occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria
-its a cycle
-Acetyl CoA reacts with one of the reagents
-Turns over & over & breaking the bonds down
-Capture some energy into 6 NADH & 2 FADH2 (energy transporters)
-CO2 is a byproduct
-produces a little ATP made through substrate-level phosphorylation
-4 ATP & 4 CO2
-glucose is fully oxidized = captured all the energy

32
Q

Describe the electron transport chain & oxidative phosphorylation

A

-occurs in the matrix & inner membrane of the mitochondria
-there are proteins on the inner membrane of the mitochondria which separates the matrix from the rest of the mitochondria
-first NADH is going to pass 2 electrons into a protein & split to become NAD+ & H+ = proton / hydrogen ion
-electrons transport through the proteins and H+ is pumped into the inner membrane space
-until they have pumped 3 H+ through at the end of the chain = O2
-electrons transform to Oxygen -> H2O
-oxygen is the most electronegative
-all the dammed up H+ gonna rush through the enzyme (ATP synthase) & act as a dam to create ATP
-step that creates the most amount of ATP

33
Q

Whats the difference between the ATP created in glycolysis & the citric acid cycle versus the ATP created in the electron transport chain?

A

-the ATP being produced in glycolysis & the citric acid cycle is produced differently than the ATP being produced in the electron transport chain

34
Q

When does fermentation occur?

A

-when there is an absence of oxygen
-glycolysis without oxygen

35
Q

What are the 2 types of fermentation?

A

-alcohol fermentation= poison for all organisms, we can’t live with it but its just surviving
-lactic acid fermentation= humans do this (backup plan if we are depleted of oxygen) creates lactic acid

36
Q

Describe photosynthesis

A

-occurs in the chloroplasts
-takes in carbon dioxide, water & energy (sunlight) -> glucose & oxygen
-has 2 reactions
-1st= O2 is produced from H2O in the presence of sunlight didn’t require CO2= light-capturing cycle
-energy of the light converts to chemical energy of ATP & NADPH
-2nd= sugar is produced from a CO2 requires products from the first reaction = Calvin cycle
-NADPH & ATP energy used to reduce CO2 to sugar

37
Q

How does pigments work during photosynthesis?

A

-chloroplasts contain large quantities of pigments - molecules that can absorb only a certain wavelength of light
-chlorophyll= green pigment

38
Q

What are the characteristics of visible light? Why are green leaves seen as green?

A

-light comes in as all the colors of the rainbow
-blue, green, red: primary colors light is made up of
-chlorophyll absorbs blue & red pigment but doesn’t absorb the green pigment so that’s what we see
-we see whats not absorbed
-in the spring leaves are green because there’s a lot of chlorophyll
-in the fall leaves change colors, chlorophyll starts to break down & other pigments become more prominent

39
Q

Whats an autotroph & heterotroph?

A

-autotroph= make their own food
-heterotroph= eat stuff to get energy

40
Q

What is the calvin cycle?

A

-convert CO2 to sugar
-stroma of the chloroplasts
-CO2 fixation -> CO2 reduction -> regeneration of RuBP
-CO2 fixation= captures CO2 from atmosphere by attaching it to RuBP (2-3 PG)
-CO2 reduction= process of converting CO2 to sugar (adding electrons & energy to the molecules) sequence of reactions uses NADPH & ATP (G3P)
-1 G3P is used for glucose
-regeneration= where most of the G3P used; ATP is used to form RuBP
-to form a glucose molecule the cycle has to turn 6 times

41
Q

What is photosystem 1 & 2 ?

A

-photosystem 1 & 2 captures light energy
-photosystem 1= NADPH produced
-photosystem 2= ATP produced

42
Q

What are the functions of molecules involved in the cell surface?

A

-integrins= anchors the cells to ECM
-ECM= extra-cellular material that holds the cells down & give them support
-collagen= provides structural support & found all over the ECM
-proteoglycan= provides compression support
-plant cell wall= provide structural support so the plant can stand against gravity
-cellulose= similar to collagen
-pectin= similar to proteoglycan

43
Q

What are the functions of the molecules involved in cell-cell adhesion & communication?

A

-tight junctions= seal cells together
-desmosomes= connect the cytoskeleton of cells
-gap junctions= act as channels between cells (can communicate through gap junctions between the cells)
-plasmodesmata= similar to gap junctions

44
Q

What are the different ways a cell can signal to another cell?

A

-chemical signaling= communication between cells
-autocrine signaling= cell targets itself (talks to itself)
-juxtacrine signaling= cell targets a cell connected by gap junctions (communicating with its next door neighbor)
-paracrine signaling= cell targets nearby cell (distance to travel, neighbor, not too far)
-endocrine signaling= cell targets distant cell through the bloodstream (development, happens during reproduction)

45
Q

What defines a target cell?

A

-receptors (specific receptor for specific signal)
-dynamic (levels can change)
-specific to target cells
-can be inhibited

46
Q

What is soluble hormones vs insoluble hormones?

A

-soluble= peptides; cannot pass through phospholipid bilayer, must bind to protein receptors on the cell membrane, cell signaling (receptors on the outside bc it cant get into the cell)
-insoluble= steroid hormones, lipid soluble, can pass through phospholipid bilayer, bind to receptor molecules inside the cytoplasm or nucleus, can activate processes like transcription (receptors inside the cell bc it can get in the cell)

47
Q

What is the difference between mitosis vs meiosis?

A

-mitosis= 4 stages, creates somatic cells, asexual reproduction, produces 2 diploid cells, 2n, clone
-meiosis= 8 stages, creates gametes, sexual reproduction, 4 haploid cells, n (half of the chromosomes), genetic variation

48
Q

What is mitosis & meiosis?

A

-mitosis= a stage of cell replication
-meiosis= a stage of an organisms reproduction

49
Q

What are the basic steps of cell replication?

A

-copy DNA (DNA replication)
-separate copies (cell division)
-divide cytoplasm (cytokinesis)

50
Q

What are the events of the cell cycle?

A

-gap 1 = interphase
-s phase (DNA synthesis) = interphase
-gap 2 = interphase
-m phase (mitosis)

the cell spends most of its time in interphase

51
Q

What is the primary function of mitosis?

A

to divide the replicated DNA to form 2 daughter cells (2 nuclei)

52
Q

What are the steps of mitosis?

A

-prophase: start of mitosis, nuclear membrane breaks apart, fully formed chromosomes, centrioles, chromosomes condense & spindle fibers begin to form
-metaphase: chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
-anaphase: chromosomes separate at the centromere & separate sister chromatids
-telophase: reverts to how we start, reform the nucleus, detach the chromosomes from the spindle fibers
-cytokinesis: cytoplasm divides & becomes 2 cells

53
Q

What are the checkpoints of the cell cycle?

A
  • G1 checkpoint
    • pass checkpoint if: cell size is adequate, nutrients are sufficient, social signals are present & DNA is undamaged
  • G2 checkpoint
    • pass checkpoint if: chromosomes have replicated successfully, DNA is undamaged & activated MPF is present
  • M-phase checkpoints
    • pass checkpoint if: chromosomes have attached to spindle apparatus & chromosomes have properly segregated & MPF is absent
54
Q

What are the proteins present in the cell cycle?

A
  • cyclin = regulatory protein
  • cdk (cyclin-dependent kinase) catalyze phosphorylation of other proteins to start M phase
  • the concentration of cdk stays the same throughout the cell cycle
  • the concentration of cyclin changes throughout the cell cycle
55
Q

What are the events of meiosis?

A
  • meiosis 1: parent cell is diploid (2n) & contains a homologous pair of replicated chromosomes
  • meiosis 2: daughter cells are haploid (n) & contain just one homolog (sister chromatids separate)
  • meiosis 1: starts with one cell with 4 chromosomes -> splits to 2 cells with 2 chromosomes each
  • meiosis 2: starts with 2 cells with 2 chromosomes -> splits to 4 daughter cells with 2 sister chromosomes
56
Q

How does genetic variation happen?

A
  • meiosis 1 produces genetic variation
  • crossing over in meiosis 1 (metaphase 1)
  • the genes have similar genes (exchanging alleles)
  • as you shuffle the genes around, there’s more variation

general biology 1 (3 decks)

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