midterm 2 Flashcards
what are the most effective hypnotic suggestions and explain them
- ideomotor suggestions: related to specific actions that can be performed
- challenge suggestions: actions that are not to be performed (subject loses ability)
- cognitive-perceptual suggestions: subject remembering of forgetting specific info or experiencing alter perceptions
social-cognitive theory
explains hypnosis by emphasizing the degree to which beliefs and expectations contribute to increased suggestibility
thorndike and b.f. skinner
thorndike: measured time it took to escape from puzzle boxes and the law of effect which explained that behaviour that is followed by pleasant consequences tends to be repeated
b.f. skinner: introduced the term reinforcement and the concept of the skinner box
S-O-R theory
individual actively processes and analyzes info; this activity influences observable behaviours as well as our internal mental lives.
What are the 4 processes involved in observational learning?
1) Attention to the act or behaviour;
2) Memory for it;
3) Ability to reproduce it;
4) Motivation to do so
Mirror neurons
Groups of neurons in parts of the frontal lobes associated with planning movement become active when performing an action AND when observing someone else performing an action.
What does it mean when different groups of mirror neurons fire in response to two images, despite the fact that the identical movement is being viewed?
The mirror neuron system is sensitive to the purpose or goal of the imitated action.
default mode network
the default mode network is more active when a person is paying attention to his internal thoughts rather than to an outside stimulus or task
what is the main benefit of mind wandering
mind wandering is related to future thinking as the frontal lobes have the function of planning future goals and actions. allow us to think about possible plans of action in advance
brain death
a condition in which the brain, specifically including the brain stem, no longer functions meaning there is no hope for recovery
coma
is a state marked by a complete loss of consciousness, generally due to damage to the brainstem or both hemispheres of the brain, absence of both wakefulness and awareness
persistent vegetative state
a state of minimal to no consciousness in which the patients eyes may be open, and the individual will develop sleep-wake cycles without clear signs of consciousness
if no improvements after 3 month the vegetative states goes from persistent to permanent
minimally conscious state (MCS)
a disordered state of consciousness marked by the ability to show some behaviours that suggest at least partial consciousness, even if on an inconsistent basis
locked-in syndrome
a disorder in which the patient is aware and awake but, because of an inability to move his or her body, appears unconscious
what are the short term effects of drugs
- altering the amount of neurotransmitter being released into the synapse
- preventing the reuptake of the neurotransmitter once it has been released, thereby allowing it to have a longer influence on neurons
- blocking the receptor that the neurotransmitter would normally bind to
- binding to the receptor in place of the neurotransmitter
how do drugs affect our brain
the brain chemical most often influenced is dopamine which is related to rewarding and pleasurable feelings, making drugs addictive
what are psychological factors that influence the effects of drugs
- the environment
- experience with the drug
- expectations about a drug
long term effects of drugs
- increased tolerance
- physical dependence: need to take drug to avoid unplesant withdrawls
- psychological dependance: emotional need for a drug without any underlying physical dependance
psychoactive drugs
substances that affect thinking, behaviour, perception, and emotion
stimulants
a category of drugs that speed up the activity of the nervous system, typically enhancing wakefulness and alertness
examples of stimulants
- caffeine
- cocaine
- amphetamines
* ecstasy/MDMA is an amphetamine that can be classified as a stimulant but also has hallucinogenic effects
hallucinogens/psychedelics
substances that produce perceptual distortions
examples:
-LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
- psilocybin (mushrooms)
-ketamine
- DMT (dimethyltryptamine)
- salvia divinorum (herb that is chewed or smoked)
opiates
also called narcotics, drugs such as morphine and heroin that reduce pain and induce extremely intense feelings of euphoria
examples:
- fentanyl
- methadone
- oxycodone
- percocet
sedatives
sometimes referred to as “downers”, depress activity of the central nervous system. newer forms are called benzodiazepines
examples:
xanax
ativan
valium
alcohol
targets GABA receptors, affects opiate and dopamine receptors which explains euphoria and lowered inhibitions. impairs balance and coordination
marijuana
a drug comprising the leaves and buds of the cannabis plant that produces a combination of hallucinogenic, stimulant, and relaxing (narcotic) effects. contains a high concentration of THC
how does marijuana effect memory and cognition
disrupts short term memory and makes it harder to recall information from long term memory
difficulties with decision making, attention, problem solving
brains have to work harder due and there is decreased activity in right frontal lobe
how does marijuana effect the teenage brain
impairs developments in the frontal lobes and the growth of fibres connecting brain regions
worse effects on cognition and memory
deep processing vs shallow processing
shallow: involves encoding more superficial properties of a stimulus such as the sound or spelling of a word
deep: is generally related to encoding information about an items meaning or its function
self-reference effect
occurs when you think about information in terms of how it relates to you or how it is useful to you; this type of encoding will lead you to remembering that information better than you otherwise would have
encoding specificity principle
retrieval is most effective when the conditions at the time of encoding and retrieval are the same
context-dependant memory
the idea that retrieval is more effective when it takes place in the same physical setting (context) as encoding
its our senses that trigger memories and act as the context (ie. smell, taste, touch, etc.)
state dependent memory
retrieval is more effective when your internal state matches the state you were in during encoding
example: we will remember things when we were drunk better if we are drunk again
mood dependant memory
people remember better if their mood at retrieval matches their mood during encoding
What are the three types of biological cycles?
1) Infradian rhythm (>day) e.g. menstrual cycle;
2) Ultradian rhythm (<day) e.g. heart rate, urination
3) Circadian rhythm (24hrs) e.g sleep-wake cycle
Brain waves
Measuring the frequency of neural firing. How many waves go through the brain in a given period of time. (Lower waves mean lower brain activity).
Gamma waves (30-100 Hz)
Hyper brain activity; high cognitive functioning
Beta waves (12-30 Hz)
Alert waking state. Attentive, engaged with the world
Alpha waves (8-12 Hz)
Very relaxed. Deeping into meditation
Theta waves (3-8 Hz)
Drowsy and drifting down into sleep and dreams
Delta waves (.5-3 Hz)
Deeply asleep and not dreaming
Sleep spindles
Extra activity to suppress activity in our brain to keep us asleep
Stages of sleep: Awake
Alpha waves
Stages of sleep: Stage 1: Brief, transitional (1-7 min)
Theta waves, hypnic jerks
Stages of sleep: Stage 2 (10-25 min)
Mixed EEG, sleep spindles
Stages of sleep: Stage 3
Start of slow-wave sleep; some delta waves
Stages of sleep: Stage 4 (30 min)
Increasing delta waves
Stages of sleep: Stage 5: REM
EEG similar to awake; vivid dreaming
Why do we sleep?
Preserve and protect; restore and repair; memory consolidation; problem solving; growth and development
What are dreams and when do they primarily occur?
Electrochemical events that involve the brainstem, areas of the forebrain, and the eyes; Occur primarily during REM sleep
What are the three theories of why we dream and who proposed them?
Freud: Wish fulfillment (latent content);
Hobson & McCarley: Activation-synthesis model (pons)
Cartwright: Cognitive problem-solving (cognitive insight)
Night terrors
Occur during NREM (usually stage 4); not associated with dreams, just waking up terrified
Sleepwalking
Occurs during NREM (stages 3 & 4)
Narcolepsy
Wakefulness into REM sleep; Hormone “Orexin” (produce less of this hormone so their bodies aren’t able to regulate this and they just fall asleep)
Selective attention
We direct our attention to relevant stimuli (we focus on what’s relevant to us and that’s what we see)
Inattentional blindness
fail to notice clearly visible objects/events because our attention is directed elsewhere
Broadbent Filter Theory vs Treisman’s Attenuation Theory
- Info is blocked (even though you weren’t attending to the conversations around you, once it becomes relevant to you your attention can shift immediately).
- Volume is turned down
What are the three stages of memory?
- Encoding -> input
- Storage -> saved info
- Retrieval -> Output
Sperling’s memory task showed:
People can only recall 4 letters in 1/20th of a second
Iconic memory
The visual form of sensory memory (0.5 – 1 sec.)
Echoic memory
The auditory form of sensory memory (5-10 sec.)
What does the “magical number 7” (plus or minus 2) refer to?
People can hold about 5-9 pieces of information in STM. However, we can hold more through “chunking” (e.g. phone number rhythm)
The Working Memory Model: Central executive
Switches between tasks;
Deploys attention to the three storage systems
The Working Memory Model: Phonological loop
Auditory store: Holds verbal/auditory information;
Auditory loop: Rehearses info
The Working Memory Model:
Visuospatial sketchpad
Holds and manipulates mental images;
Info about objects/locations
The Working Memory Model: Episodic buffer
Combines images and sounds into coherent, story-like episodes
Types of long-term memory:
Explicit -> Declarative
Memory with conscious recall; Episodic memory (events experienced) and semantic memory (facts, knowledge)
Types of long-term memory: Implicit -> Non-Declarative
Memory without conscious recall; Procedural memory (motor skills, actions) and conditioning & priming
Neurobiology of memory: Long-term potentiation
Increase in transmission of neural signals between neurons that fire together
(Hebb rule: Cells that fire together, wire together)
Neurobiology of memory: Consolidation
Process of converting short-term memories to long-term memories in the brain
(Cellular changes become more permanent; cellular consolidation)
Anterograde amnesia
Inability to form new declarative memories
- Sensory memory and STM are unaffected
- Previous memories and implicit/procedural memories unaffected
- Damage to hippocampus
Retrograde Amnesia
Inability to recall past events
- Long-term declarative memories distributed throughout cortex
- Typically limited to seconds or minutes (e.g., before an injury)
Three types of encoding
1) Encode based on its image – visual (structural);
2) Encode based on its sound – acoustic (phonemic);
3) Encode based on the meaning - semantic
Encoding well: Spacing
Rehearsing information over a period of time is more effective than waiting until the last minute
Context/State dependence
Context-dependence: Better recall WHERE you experienced it (e.g. visit playground, recall old memories);
State-dependence: Better recall in same physiological state as you learned it (e.g., mood-congruent recall)
What are emotional memories?
Emotional events are self-relevant, and associated with arousal
- Leads to deep processing of info
- Powerful stimuli serve as retrieval cues
constructive memory
a process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details
false memory
remembering events that did not occur, or incorrectly recalling details of an event
misinformation effect
when information occurring after an event becomes part of the memory for that event
imagination inflation
the increased confidence in a false memory of an event following repeated imagination of the event
recovered memory
a memory of a traumatic event that is suddenly recovered after blocking the memory of that event for a long period of time
