Midterm 2 Flashcards
What is social role gender theory?
Institutionalized roles provide opportunities or constraints on behavior. ex: women are more likely than men to be homemakers and primary caretakers of children and to hold caretaking jobs in the paid economy
What is cognitive developmental gender theory?
Gender labeling, Gender identity, Understanding gender stability, Understanding gender consistency- A boy remains a boy even if he puts on a dress or plays with a doll
What is gender labeling and when does it occur?
categorizing others’ sex/gender; 2 years
What is gender identity and when does it occur?
labeling one’s own sex/gender; 3 years
What is gender consistency and when is it understood?
gender is permanent- a boy remains a boy even if he puts on a dress or plays with a doll; 6 years
What is gender schema theory?
personal gender schema of what it means to be a boy or girl
What is social cognitive gender theory?
children’s gender development comes from observation of male and female models, enactive experience,, and direct teaching- their gender development increasingly becomes self-guided
What is developmental intergroup gender theory?
identifying with a gender group leads you to maintain and enhance your gender identity- ingroup vs. outgroup dynamic
Which countries especially strive for gender-neutrality?
Sweden, Norway, Finland, Iceland, and New Zealand
What are the basic cross-cultural findings regarding the creation of gender-neutral societies?
Gender differences in personality and profession choice are maximized in the most egalitarian countries- When you minimize the cultural differences, you allow for personality differences to naturally diverge (you maximize innate differences)
Mean sex differences that have generally been empirically supported
anatomical differences, girls have an edge in verbal ability, fear, timidity, decreased risk taking, emotional sensitivity/expressivity, compliance and tactfulness, and relational aggression(?); boys have an edge in visual/spatial abilities, mathematical ability, developmental vulnerability, activity level, physically aggressive/disruptive behaviors
Parents often conform to gender-stereotypic roles in the home- t/f
true
Parents often model gender-neutral communication- t/f
false- Parents can also model gender-typed styles of communication
Mothers tend to be ___ talkative than fathers when interacting with their infants or toddlers (but not older children)
more
Mothers more likely than fathers to use ___
affiliative speech (supportive comments)
Fathers more likely than mothers to use ___
assertive speech (directives)
Parents’ language style parallel that of children, but unclear if parental modeling ___ in children’s communication
contributes to differences
Parents encourage ___ play
gender-type
Fathers are ___ than mothers to promote gender-typed activities
more likely
Mothers of daughters highlight more ___ content, mothers of sons highlight more ___ content
counter-stereotypical, stereotypical
Why are children resistant to countersterotypic information in the media they consume?
They have internalized gender-typed values or they want to maintain peer approval
Children can distinguish men and women’s faces around ___ when faces contain ___
1 year, gender-related cues
Children begin to use gender to label others at ___
1 ½-2
Between ___, children develop gender constancy and form stereotypes
3 and 6
Gender-typed play preferences emerge by ___
age 2
Boys are more likely to use ___, girls are more likely to use ___ behaviors
power-assertive behaviors, affiliative and collaborative
Relative distributions of same-sex to opposite-sex peer interactions across developmental periods
Increasing preference for playing with same-gender peers, by age 3 same-gender peers are favored and this increases through preK years and remains stable until adolescence. Peer affiliations remain primarily with members of the same gender during adolescence
Longitudinal research on the likely outcomes of child gender dysphoria (3 findings)
Children with gender dysphoria are likely not trans.
Transgenderism, if it is real, is exceedingly rare.
Often misdiagnosis and self-fulfilling prophecy
Alternative pathways to gender dysphoria or transgender identity
Toxic culture, comorbidity, self esteem, social contagion, same-sex attraction, gender role nonconform
Racial/ethnic differences in prevalence of dating and romantic relationships
Asian American youth are less likely than other racial and ethnic groups to engage in teen romance.
What is relationship churning?
breaking up and getting back together with the same person over and over
What is hook-up culture?
sexuality without commitment
Higher maternal sensitivity is related with ___ involvement in romantic relationships in middle adolescence
less
Predictive power of romantic relationships in middle adolescence for early adult romance
marital hostility and (popularity?)
What are effects of adolescent romance on adjustment?
More likely to be depressed, externalizing problems and substance use. Pseudomature behaviors in early adolescence predict poorer adjustment in adulthood
Findings of the Reconciliation and Growth Project, 4 Options Survey
Individuals who think “I feel therefore I am” (expressive individualism) did not differ in mental health outcomes from those who think “this is something I feel, not what I am.”
Online survey of 1782 individuals, and the different paths they take in light of same-sex attraction and personal or religious values: CULTURE vs. % of slightly to very satisfied
single/celibate, INVALID, 42%
single/not celibate, VALID, 40%
In a gay marriage or relationship, VALID, 95%
In a mixed-orientation marriage, INVALID, 80%
What are Sullivan’s 5 basic needs (a progression, in order)?
tenderness, companionship, acceptance, intimacy, sexuality
What are the steps (in order) of the Social Information Processing (SIP) theory?
- Encoding of cues
- Interpretation of cues
- Clarification of goals
- Response access or construction
- Response decision
- Behavioral enactment
- Peer evaluation and response
Proactive vs. reactive aggressors and differences in attributional bias
Reactive aggressors- “others are hostile to me”, attend to cues with this expectancy, attribute hostile intent to the provocateur, become angry and quickly retaliate aggressively, self-fulfilling prophecy with peer and teacher reactions.
Proactive aggressors- “aggression is the best strategy to accomplish my goals”, whether provoked or not, coolly and consciously decide that aggression will best assist in achieving aims
Compared to nonaggressive peers, aggressive kids likely to ___ how much peers like them and ___ how much peers dislike them
overestimate, underestimate
Compared to nonaggressive peers, aggressive kids are ___ confident that aggression will yield ___results
more, tangible
Compared to nonaggressive peers, aggressive kids are more certain that aggression will be ___ for them and successful at ___ others’ noxious behavior
easy, terminating
Compared to nonaggressive peers, aggressive kids are more inclined to believe that aggression will enhance their ___ and will not cause their victims any ___
self-esteem, permanent harm
Definition of aggression
the intent to hurt or harm (must be intent and harm)
what is hostile/reactive aggression?
goal is to hurt or harm another
what is instrumental/proactive aggression?
goal is to use aggression as a tool to achieve a nonaggressive end
Physically aggressive behaviors consistent with goals important to boys in their peer group- ___, ___, ___
physical dominance, instrumentality, maintenance of hierarchies
Relationally aggressive behaviors are consistent with the relational goals of girls- ___
establishing and maintaining close, intimate connections with others
Both boys and girls use relational aggression, but girls ___
take relational aggression much more seriously
Patterson’s model of delinquency
Negative reinforcement helps maintain coercive interactions, mothers of these “out of control” children rarely use social approval—the only way to get attention is to irritate others!
physically aggressive children at risk for ___, ___, ___, ___, ___
peer rejection, juvenile delinquency, adult criminality, dropping out of school, and adolescent pregnancy
relationally aggressive children at risk for ___, ___, ___, ___
peer rejection, loneliness and depression, delinquency, and BPD
popular sociometric status
high impact, many positive and few negative nominations
rejected sociometric status
high impact, many negative and few positive nominations
neglected sociometric status
low impact, few positive or negative nominations
controversial sociometric status
high impact, many positive and negative nominations
Correlates of sociometric popularity
friendly approaches, natural leadership, nurturance, social reinforcement, prosocial interactions, cooperative play, social conversation, appropriate rough-and-tumble play, assertive without being aggressive
Correlates of sociometric rejection
aggressive and disruptive behaviors (including inappropriate rough-and-tumble play), withdrawn, unsociable, or submissive behavior, victimization status and adult help-seeking, less prosocial behavior than average children
popular or rejected status is relatively stable over time- t/f
true
sociometric popular children entry style
behave in ways relevant to ongoing peer interactions using a 2-step sequence: wait and hover, then mimic the peer group and make group-oriented statements
sociometric unpopular children entry style
employ self-oriented, disruptive entry strategies, hover nearby rather than directly engage
Boys usually bullied by ___, girls usually bullied by ___
other boys; boys and girls
most bullying is ___
verbal attacks
background and characteristics of passive bullying victims
quiet, sensitive, studious, shy, isolated, cower and cry in response to bullying- no attempt at self defense
background and characteristics of proactive bullying victims
react angrily and aggressively to bullying provocations
characteristics of bullies
-Tend to be narcissists (not low in self-esteem);
-may have callous/unemotional traits
-social intelligence may be necessary to engage in subtler forms of bullying; -many are bistrategic controllers (mix up prosocial and coercive strategies in pursuing their goals);
-bully-victims are likely to be low in social intelligence;
-even if they are not universally well-liked, many bullies are popular, powerful, and “cool,” and do not lack friends
bully role in the bullying circle
start the bullying and take an active part
followers/henchmen role in the bullying circle
take an active part but do not start the bullying
supporters/passive bullies role in the bullying circle
support the bullying but do not take an active part
passive supporters/possible bullies role in the bullying circle
like the bullying but do not display open support
disengaged onlookers role in the bullying circle
watch what happens, “is none of my business,” don’t take a stand
possible defenders role in the bullying circle
dislike the bullying and think they should help (but don’t do it)
defenders of the victim role in the bullying circle
dislike the bullying and help or try to help the victim
victim role in the bullying circle
the one who is exposed
3 effective ways for children to avoid or overcome being bullied
teach the victim proper attributions (teach that it is NOT your child’s fault, explore reasons bullies do what they do);
bullies prey on the weak and rejected, so encourage friendships with accepted children, not other victimized children;
bullies are looking for a reaction, teach your child not to give it (no crying or hotheaded reaction or seeking adult intervention, instead give a nonchalant response or firm but unemotional and confident response)
three necessary components of bullying
intent to harm, repetition, and an imbalance of power or strength
prosocial behavior definition
helping, sharing, showing consideration and concern, defending, and making restitution after deviation (children also include humor, being friends, inclusion, and telling secrets)
why is it complex to identify and define prosocial behavior?
it is difficult to identify what is helpful and what’s not- those you aim to help may not see your behavior as prosocial, and assistance may actually lead to unwanted feelings of obligation
self-oriented distress definition
distress and discomfort elicited by witnessing another person’s suffering
Nelson & Crick (1999) findings
Relative to the comparison group of peers, prosocial children are
significantly more likely to hold a “benign attributional bias,” prosocial children are
significantly less likely to report feeling angry or upset by hypothetical altercations with peers, prosocial children are
significantly more likely to favor a relational goal over an instrumental goal, and prosocial children
evaluate aggressive responses more negatively and prosocial responses more positively
Grusec & Davidov’s five domains of socialization of prosocial development
protection, reciprocity, control, guided learning, and group participation
Difference between altruism and prosocial behavior
Altruism requires some sacrifice, prosocial behavior does not necessarily
theory behind reciprocal altruism
survival and reproductive success are also more likely when help is received from non-kin, but there has to be a mechanism ensuring the exchange of help is equivalent so that the benefits and sacrifices balance out
multilevel selection theory
selection for altruism can occur at a group rather than at an individual level since there are conditions in which it would be adaptive for all members of a group to be altruistic, regardless of whether or not their altruism was reciprocated
costly-signaling theory
attempts to account for actions that involve a great deal of self-sacrifice and unlikely to be reciprocated, argued that the behavior increases the attractiveness of the donor as a mate, increases level of dominance, and/or provide insurance for the future when the donor may be out of resources
research on volunteerism
Adolescents with involved/interested/volunteering parents are more likely to volunteer;
viewing informative content in media may cultivate an interest in the broader community environment;
findings suggest that even when adolescents are required to engage in community service (sometimes grudgingly), the involvement still has positive effects on their prosocial development
Basics of Kohlberg’s stage theory of morality and support for it
An attempt to defeat the notion of ethical relativism- right and wrong are defined by a universal morality, and moral reasoning is central in development;
supporting evidence includes that people are consistent in their moral reasoning across contexts, that progression of the stages is irreversibly forward, with no stage skipping, and that people do consider later stages to be both psychologically and ethically superior to earlier ones
Kohlberg’s stages of morality
preconventional (personal) morality- morality is defined by authorities (heteronomous morality) or self-serving (exchange)
conventional morality- winning approval (conformity to expectations) or maintaining social order (social system and conscience)
postconventional (principled) morality- overarching principles of justice (prior rights and social contract, progressing to universal ethical principles)
How to promote progression in moral reasoning (peer and parent interactions)
Elicit the child’s opinions,
pose appropriate probing questions,
check for understanding, and
do so in the context of emotional support and attentiveness;
social experience drives moral development
Kohlberg’s emphasis on disequilibrium
Believed that progression in moral reasoning comes through disequilibrium- a Socratic approach to teach children to rethink their moral stance
Gilligan’s sex-based moral orientations
An ethic of care (women) vs. an ethic of justice (men); she argued that Kohlberg’s theory embraces the latter and is therefore biased against women; care and justice orientations were presumed to be fundamentally incompatible; this theory was “convincingly debunked;” Women and men do NOT exclusively rely on the same orientation across dilemmas (most people mix it up, according to the nature of the moral problem); boys and girls are NOT differentially socialized with care-or-justice-oriented reasoning; natal sex does not differentially predict which moral stage one inhabits
Turiel’s domain theory and what it helps to demonstrate about children’s early morality
Children appear to have a “moral instinct” and their view of authority varies by domain of social knowledge; three domains-
moral (justice, rights, and human welfare; universal and unalterable),
conventional (shared yet arbitrary behavioral norms; context dependent), and
personal (matters of individual prerogative; individualized/amoral)
Kochanska’s goodness-of-fit model
The interplay between child temperament and parent socialization; teaching anxious children- deemphasize power assertion and emphasize induction, work with the child’s discomfort; teaching fearless children- discipline is bound to be ineffective (minimal anxiety), focus on a secure attachment
LeVine’s functions of the family (there are 4 of them)
Socialization goal- to help children acquire desirable or appropriate beliefs, values, and behavior deemed significant and appropriate by older members of their society;
survival goal- to promote the physical survival and health of children, ensuring that they will live long enough to have children of their own;
economic goal- to foster skills and behaviors that the child will need to be economically self-sufficient as an adult;
self-actualization goal- to foster behavioral capabilities for maximizing other cultural values (morality, religion, achievement, wealth, prestige, and a sense of personal satisfaction)
Marital conflict and children’s social development (5 aspects)
Marital conflict is the best familial predictor of childhood behavioral problems;
children may model interparental aggression;
children may be more prone to hostile attribution bias;
background anger serves as a family stressor;
marital conflict undermines parenting and the parent-child relationship
Contrasts in Marquardt’s and Golombok’s views on reproductive donation
Golombok- “variation within the normal range” and very limited research, yet unbounded confidence;
Marquardt- young adults conceived through sperm donation are more likely to experience profound struggles in many areas (mental health, delinquency, identity questions, etc.)
aspects of the traditional conjugal view of marriage (5 aspects)
marriage is properly begun by consent (a union of will, relatively independent of emotion) and
is a public good, “for better or for worse,”
marriage is inseparably tied to procreation,
children benefit from both a mother and father,
marriage must be permanent and exclusive
aspects of the revisionist view of marriage (6 aspects)
a private relationship between two consenting adults,
terminable at the will of either,
marriage is an emotional union, valuable as long as the emotion endures,
you and your partner(s) decide the level of familial orientation,
subject to change, all types of love are possible so any union can be called marriage,
hedonistic view in which adult pleasure and self-fulfillment are paramount in any intimate relationship
Marriage and divorce trends
both marriage and divorce rates have hit an all-time low; SES “marriage divide” is widening
effects of divorce (6 effects)
Less effective parenting,
losing contact with children,
continuing conflict with ex-spouse, etc.,
diminished circle of family and friends,
downward economic mobility,
state has to fill the domestic vacuum
