Final Exam

Question 1

What are 5 aspects of induction in parenting?

Answer 1

1. Directs in a rational issue-oriented manner
2. Encourages verbal give and take
3. Shares with the child the reasoning behind parental policy
4. solicits the child’s objections when the child refuses to conform
5. “Reflection enhancing messages”

Question 2

The difference between parenting styles vs. practices

Answer 2

parenting style= a collection of behaviors that adds up over time

parenting practices= specific strategies to achieve specific goals in specific contexts.

Question 3

Darling and Steinberg on parenting styles and practices

Answer 3

parenting styles may be “equally effective in socializing children across all cultural contexts, but that the goals toward which children are socialized, and thus parenting practices, vary across these same ecologies”

Question 4

5 aspects of authoritarian parenting

Answer 4

1. very demanding and directive but not responsive
2. Punitive, forceful measures (coercion) to curb self-will and demand obedience
3. Keeps the child in a subordinate role
4. Restricts child autonomy
5. Does not encourage verbal give-and-take (induction)

Question 5

Effects of authoritarian parenting on children

Answer 5

Children tend to perform moderately well at school and avoid problem behavior, but poorer social skills, lower self-esteem, and higher levels of depression.

Question 6

4 aspects of permissive parenting

Answer 6

1. more responsive than demanding
2. Affirming and accepting of child’s impulses and actions (does not require mature behavior)
3. Aims to free the child from restraint (allows considerable self regulation)
4. Exerts lax or inconsistent control when the child misbehaves (avoids confrontation)

Question 7

Effects of permissive parenting on children

Answer 7

Children are more likely to be involved in problem behavior (impulse control problems, difficulty respecting others, coping with frustration), perform less well in school (little self-discipline), though they do not tend to have social skill, self esteem, or depression difficulties.

Question 8

4 aspects of authoritative parenting

Answer 8

1. uses induction
2. Exerts firm control when the young child disobeys, but does not hem the child in with restrictions
3. Love, Limits, & Latitude
4. Responsiveness, structure, & autonomy support

Question 9

Effects of authoritative parenting on children

Answer 9

Children tend to do very well in all aspects of life: socially mature, high self esteem, responsible, more prosocial, high academic achievement, very little problem behavior.

Question 10

Effects of uninvolved parenting on children

Answer 10

Children perform most poorly in all domains

Question 11

What are the two major dimensions of parenting?

Answer 11

acceptance/responsiveness and demandingness/control

Question 12

Indirect effects of parents on peer sociability

Answer 12

Parental effects wherein the parent’s goal is not explicitly to modify the child’s relationships with peers. Proactively regulating or scaffolding social interactions. Most appropriate for infants and toddlers.

Question 13

Direct effects of parents on peer sociability

Answer 13

Parental effects which directly determine the sheer amount of contact a child has with peers.

Question 14

What did the Ladd & Gotler study find?

Answer 14

children are more liked by peers in nursery school with more direct/less indirect interventions

Question 15

How does attachment effect peer relations?

Answer 15

Secure attachments foster peer sociability and positive peer relations.

Question 16

Parents as managers (peer sociability)

Answer 16

Facilitating peer contacts by acting as designers and mediators- Enrolling children in organized play groups or activities. Chauffeuring children from one place to another. Getting together with their friends so their children can play together. Coaching children in how to initiate and maintain peer contacts.

Question 17

4 aspects of Parents as educators (peer sociability)

Answer 17

1. Supervising- Interactive interventions (Direct)- Proactively regulating or scaffolding social interactions. Most appropriate for infants and toddlers.
2. Indirect Interventions- Observing and reacting minimally to events in children’s play. Ladd & Golter study.
3. Monitoring- Outside of direct parental involvement
4. Advising/Consulting- Decontextualized discussions. Outside of the peer context. Proactive or reactive.

Question 18

Controversy over ethnicity and parenting styles

Answer 18

In the study “Physical Discipline and Children’s Adjustment: Cultural Normativeness as a Moderator” it was found that “…physical discipline was less strongly associated with adverse child outcomes in conditions of greater perceived normativeness, but physical discipline was also associated with more adverse outcomes regardless of its perceived normativeness.”

Question 19

3 aspects of effective discipline

Answer 19

1. Children must accurately interpret the parents’ intended message
2. Children need to accept the parental message and adopt it as their own
3. Parents must seek a united front in authoritative parenting (consistency and predictability. Disunity is a predictor of marital conflict and lower satisfaction)

Question 20

Parenting needs in infancy and toddlerhood

Answer 20

Schedule, structure, supervision (including childproofing). Reasoning, diversion, negotiation, and ignoring misbehavior are the most frequently cited strategies, and the most effective.

Question 21

Parenting needs in preschool

Answer 21

Reasoning and logical consequences are more viable as tools. Verbal reprimands and positive reinforcement of desired behavior are the best corrective tools for misbehavior. “Coercive cycles” are possible, leading to ongoing escalation

Question 22

Parenting needs for school-age children

Answer 22

Reasoning and logical consequences are ever more effective. Better to ask for better behavior than to punish, as children still seek to please their parents.

Question 23

Parenting needs in adolescence

Answer 23

“Storm and stress” is not normative (mutual respect & cooperation). Gradual transition to greater autonomy, as warranted. Limit setting and monitoring must continue. Evidence of internalization. Withdrawal of privileges is impactful in dealing with misbehavior. Physical coercion and psychological control are significant errors.

Question 24

Most common patterns in Baumrind’s Seven Patterns of Parental Authority

Answer 24

democratic (19%) and good enough (19%)

Question 25

Least common pattern in Baumrind’s Seven Patterns of Parental Authority

Answer 25

authoritative (7%)

Question 26

What are decontextualized discussions (peer sociability)?

Answer 26

Part of parents’ role as educators- advising/consulting. Outside of the peer context. Proactive or reactive.

Question 27

What is psychological control? (3 aspects)

Answer 27

“manipulation and exploitation of the parent-child bond (e.g., love-withdrawal and guilt induction), negative affect-laden expressions and criticisms (e.g., disappointment and shame), and excessive personal control (e.g., possessiveness, protectiveness).”- Barber

Question 28

How much has the rate of depression increased from the 1950s to the 1970s?

Answer 28

tenfold

Question 29

What is pessimism?

Answer 29

dwelling on the most catastrophic cause of any setback

Question 30

3 correlates of psychological control

Answer 30

1. Psychological control intrudes upon the process of self-formation and establishing autonomy.
2. Psychological control predicts Internalizing problems (anxiety, depression, low self-esteem), 3. Externalizing difficulties (impulsivity, aggressiveness, acting out).

Question 31

Mental health crisis for Gen Z

Answer 31

It is not that young people are more comfortable talking about their mental health- not all mental health issues are rising. Reported stress is not rising, but Gen Z appears to have fewer tools to deal with stress

Question 32

Twenge’s explanation for Gen Z’s struggles

Answer 32

Gen Z has less life experience (growing up slowly)- delay drivers license, Less likely to drink alcohol or use drugs, Less likely to have a paying job, Less likely to date regularly, Less likely to engage in teen sexuality, Devices took over their lives in middle school, rather than later (contrast with millennials). Average teen spends 9 hours a day on media.

Question 33

Haidt’s 3 great untruths

Answer 33

1. Damage is always permanent and doesn’t make you stronger (antifragility- some things have to get pushed off the table).
2. If you get a strong feeling, it’s always going to be objectively true (are there other ways to look at this? Crucial to critical thinking).
3. Each person is either only good or only evil (this makes it hard to create an inclusive, diverse environment).

Question 34

Relative frequencies of different forms of child maltreatment

Answer 34

(2006 data)
64.1% neglected
16.0% physically abused
8.8% sexually abused
6.6% psychologically maltreated
2.2% medically neglected
15.1% “other” types- abandonment, threats of harm to the child, congenital drug addiction.

Question 35

Sex and SES differences in abuse prevalence

Answer 35

Sex differences only emerge for sexual abuse, where girls are about 3X more likely to be abused
Low-SES households produce 5X greater risk
Many children experience more than one type, simultaneously or sequentially

Question 36

Gershoff’s reasons to avoid corporal punishment (5 reasons)

Answer 36

Does not promote long-term compliance or conscience.

Does not reduce aggression (although spanking and child effects are both evident).

Promotes fear, anger, sadness and hostile intent attributions in the child.

Models violence and can slide into physical abuse.

Linked to negative parent-child relationships, mental health problems, delinquent behavior, and criminal behavior

Question 37

Research regarding the “cycle of abuse”

Answer 37

A “cycle of abuse” is not the norm. Only 30% of physically abused children abuse the next generation.

Question 38

The APA pedophilia controversy: efforts to normalize pederasty (4 ways they tried to do so)

Answer 38

Tried to normalize pillars of sexual liberation-
1. “Victimless crime” (Accounts for less than 1% of the adjustment variance: “. . . the negative potential of CSA for most individuals . . . has been overstated.”).
2. “Born that way” (Pedophilia or pederasty as sexual orientations).
3. Behavior between consenting individuals is a private matter; not a matter for government to intrude upon (Youngsters actually have the ability to consent (“willing and mature”))..
4. Children and adolescents know their own sexuality and, by extension, can make their own sexual choices (It is “ageist” to think otherwise (ignores the inherent power differential)).

Question 39

General findings of Werner’s Kauai birth cohort study

Answer 39

About 1/3 of these children nevertheless became adults who were competent, self-confident, autonomous, and effective. Resilience is A dynamic process allowing for positive adaptation in the context of trauma or extreme risk (risk allows for it to be manifest). Until recently, resilience focused on significant trauma or chronic stress. But we increasingly talk about the need for resilience in adversity

Question 40

Resilience and its correspondence with the Big 5 Personality Traits

Answer 40

Measures of resilience moderately correlate with the Big 5 Personality dimensions in adults. Resilience is also influenced by child temperament.
+ extraversion
+ openness
+ agreeableness
+ conscientiousness

Question 41

How resilience can be nurtured as a skill (3 ways)

Answer 41

1. Resilience is eroded by repeated trauma.
2. Sense of Coherence is the ability to perceive the surrounding
   world as understandable, manageable, and meaningful (Improves physical and psychological health independently of the presence or absence of trauma (good for everyone)).
3. Martin Seligman’s focus is on immunizing children psychologically, to fight off mental and physical illness (Psychological interventions tend to increase well being and resilience).

Question 42

General research findings regarding the development of resilience, including the gene-environment interplay

Answer 42

A variation of 5-HTT as a potential buffer against trauma (Moffitt & Caspi). 5-HTT helps regulate serotonin in the brain and comes in three variants: Two-long: protect against depression in response to stress. One-long, one-short: moderate protection. Two-short: no protection. Caveats- In the absence of trauma, 5-HTT is not expressed. Not a “depression gene.” Good support ameliorates the effects of abuse and genotype

Question 43

What are transitional characters?

Answer 43

“. . . one who, in a single generation, changes the entire course of a lineage. The individuals who grow up in an abusive, emotionally destructive environment and who somehow find a way to metabolize the poison and refuse to pass it on to their children. They break the mold. They refute the observation that . . . ‘the sins of the fathers are visited upon the heads of the children . . .’ Their contribution to humanity is to filter the destructiveness out of their lineage so that generations downstream will have a supportive foundation upon which to build productive lives.” (Broderick, 1988)

Question 44

Definition of race

Answer 44

Race is based on presumed genetic, biological, or physical similarities (Yet humans are 99.9% identical, so racial groups are not genetically distinct).

Question 45

Definition of ethnicity

Answer 45

Ethnicity can be defined as the groups of people who identify themselves as interconnected because of shared history, common language, nationality, or ancestry (Culture and group identity). Within a race, there may be multiple ethnicities, and among ethnic groups, there are multiple races

Question 46

Social compensation vs. rich-get-richer hypothesis

Answer 46

Social Compensation Hypothesis= The shy, introverted, and socially anxious can benefit from social media. Limited empirical support for this hypothesis.

Rich-Get-Richer Hypothesis= The socially competent, outgoing, and popular teens benefit most. The Pareto Principle in action: the higher the quality of one’s relationships, the higher the social media engagement. Good empirical support for this hypothesis

Question 47

How much screen time is recommended for teens?

Answer 47

Pediatricians now counsel teens to limit screen use to 90 minutes per day.

Question 48

Ellis, Rogoff, & Cromer (1981) study

Answer 48

Prior to the dramatic increase in working mothers and placement of young children in daycare or alternative care situations. Child companions increased as children got older (then decreased some at the end), and adult companions decreased as children got older.

Question 49

Lessons from Harlow’s experiments with monkeys

Answer 49

“Mother-only” monkeys- Avoid peers, Highly aggressive, Antisocial tendencies persist into adulthood.

“Peer-only” monkeys- Cling tenaciously to each other and form strong
mutual attachments, Become highly agitated over minor stresses or frustrations, As adults, unusually aggressive to peers without their group.

Question 50

Characteristic of toddler play

Answer 50

gleeful repetition

Question 51

Types of more sophisticated play (6 types)

Answer 51

1. Parallel play
2. Parallel aware play (add eye contact)
3. Simple social play (talk, smile, offer and receive toys)
4. Complementary and reciprocal play (action-based role reversals in social games such as run and chase)
5. Cooperative social pretend play (complementary roles within social pretend play)
6. Complex social pretend play (add metacommunication about pretend play)

Question 52

When do children develop a preference for playing with same-sex peers?

Answer 52

between 2 and 3 years

Question 53

Feminine gendered toys and play

Answer 53

highlight domestic activities, nurturance, and attractiveness (makeup). Girls are more likely to engage in art, playing music, playing dress-up, and doll play

Question 54

Masculine gendered toys and play

Answer 54

promote competition, aggressiveness, and construction. Boys are more likely to play with balls, blocks, cars, and weapons

Question 55

Borderwork theorist and definition

Answer 55

Thorne.

Borderwork= Interactions that strengthen the boundaries between boys’ and girls’ groups (Contests, Chasing, Rituals of pollution, Invasions. Interactions that are infused with heterosexual meanings (Kissing tag).

Question 56

Crick & Nelson (2002) findings

Answer 56

Identification of mutual friendships for 309 children in Grades 3-6. Children rated their best friends’ engagement in physical or relational aggression toward them. Girls were more likely to be relationally victimized by the friend, whereas boys were more likely to be physically victimized by the friend. For boys, physical victimization was a much better predictor of maladjustment problems than relational victimization. For girls, the inverse was true

Question 57

Direct influence of friendship in protecting against peer victimization

Answer 57

Children’s interactions with friends contribute directly to their social,
emotional, and cognitive functioning Via acquisition of social skills, Provision of emotional and instrumental support, Validation of feelings of self-worth.

Question 58

Indirect (“Friendship Protection Hypothesis”) influence of friendship in protecting against peer victimization

Answer 58

riendship serves as a moderator (protective factor), disrupting the association between risk factors and negative outcomes, Decreasing vulnerability to victimization (Number of friends, quality, and characteristics of friends), Buffering against the negative impact of victimization (Lower levels of internalizing or externalizing behavior in response to victimization).

Question 59

Friendship conversation: Dynamics of deviancy training vs. co-rumination

Answer 59

Deviancy Training= Deviant talk (conveying values, beliefs, and attitudes that are tolerant of deviant
behavior) is an important organizing feature of the friendships of antisocial youth, and extends even into young adulthood.

Co-rumination= Excessive discussion and rehashing of problems, a focus on negative affect, and generally dwelling on such talk the majority of the time spent together. Fosters high-quality, emotionally close relationships. Leads to rumination (does not promote problem solving or emotion regulation).

Question 60

The Pareto principle and individual traits promoting success

Answer 60

Pareto principle- in creative human endeavors, most people fail, a few people are a little successful, and a tiny amount of people are very successful. This is not a flaw of the capitalist system. This is a feature of every single system no matter what. To help fix this we diversify production games, but still the Matthew principle. Biggest indicators of success are IQ and conscientiousness.